IN 

ID 


LIB  R  ARY 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

OF" 


Received 
Accessions  No. 


Shelf  No.. 


MASSACHUSETTS  HIGHWAY  COMMISSION. 


REPORT  or  THE  COMMISSION 


TO    IMPROVE    THE 


HIGHWAYS  OF 


THE  COMMONWEALTH 


FEBRUARY,   1893. 


7ERSIT7 


BOSTON : 

WRIGHT  &  POTTER  PRINTING  CO.,  STATE  PRINTERS, 

18  POST  OFFICE  SQUARE. 

1893. 


0f 


To  the  Honorable   Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Massachusetts  in  General  Court  Assembled. 

We,  the  undersigned,  the  commissioners  appointed  under  the  pro- 
visions of  chapter  338  of  the  Acts  of  1892,  entitled  "An  Act  to 
establish  a  commission  to  improve  the  highways  of  this  Common- 
wealth," hereby  submit  the  following  report. 

GEO.  S.  PERKINS. 
W.  E.  McCLINTOCK. 
N.  S.  SHALER. 


INTKODUCTIOX. 


Roadways  are  at  once  the  agents  and  the  index  of  the  culture  to 
which  a  Commonwealth  has  attained.  All  social  and  economic  life 
above  the  most  primitive  conditions  rests  upon  the  transportation  of 
human  beings  or  of  goods.  In  the  earliest  stage  of  social  advance, 
commerce  was  effected  by  footmen,  or,  if  the  conditions  favored,  by 
boats  of  a  simple  kind.  A  step  in  advance  is  marked  by  the  use  of 
pack  animals  traversing  paths  worn  by  the  feet  of  the  beasts  of 
burden.  Then  came  the  use  of  wheeled  vehicles,  at  first  on  rude 
ways  such  as  the  natural  surface  might  afford.  Gradually  these 
routes  were  improved,  until  even  in  the  earlier  civilizations  the  main 
channels  of  communication  were  more  or  less  cared  for.  The  last 
stage  in  the  development  of  land  roads  is  found  in  the  modern 
railway. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  each  advance  in  the  method  of  land 
transportation  has  tended  to  destroy  the  earlier  method  of  carriage. 
The  use  of  pack  animals  quickly  replaced  the  plan  of  carrying 
burdens  on  the  shoulders  of  men.  The  development  of  ordinary 
roads  lead  to  the  disuse  of  pack-trains  ;  and,  in  turn,  the  railway  has 
induced  people  more  or  less  completely  to  neglect  their  wagon  roads. 
The  reason  for  the  last-named  change  is  evident.  So  long  as  the 
commerce  of  the  country  depended  on  these  ways  in  such  measure 
that  the  great  cities  could  be  supplied  only  by  wagons,  and  the  State 
and  national  needs  met  by  long  and  well-constructed  routes,  the 
interest  in  ordinary  roads  was  necessarily  maintained.  Considera- 
tions  of  public  defence,  as  well  as  those  of  commerce,  made  it 
necessary  that  the  highways  which  gave  a  ready  access  to  different 
parts  of  the  land  should  be  kept  in  good  order.  Now  that  railways 


D  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

afford  a  swifter  and  cheaper  communication,  the  ordinary  roads  have 
become  matters  which  appear  at  first  sight  to  be  only  of  local  impor- 
tance. The  public  has  been  accustomed  of  late  to  commit  their  care 
altogether  to  the  people  of  the  districts  in  which  they  lie. 

The  relegation  of  our  carriage  ways  to  the  care  of  the  local 
authorities  has  not  been  the  result  of  a  deliberate  plan.  It  has  been 
brought  about  in  an  accidental  way,  and  has  apparently  been  due  to 
excessive,  and,  as  experience  has  shown,  quite  unfounded,  expecta- 
tions as  to  the  measure  of  benefit  which  may  be  derived  from  rail- 
ways. It  was  long  and  naturally  supposed  that  transportation  routes 
of  this  description  might  in  time,  and  indeed  rapidly,  be  so  generally 
extended  over  the  country  that  no  distant  wagon  carriage  of  any 
kind  would  'be  required.  It  is  now,  however,  clear  that  railways 
cannot  take  the  place  of  wagon  roads.  The  cost  of  their  construc- 
tion and  the  expense  of  operating  them  is  so  great  that  we  must  turn 
once  again  to  the  care  of  the  old-fashioned  routes. 

A  little  consideration  will  show  us  that  the  development  of  railways 
in  a  manner  requires  the  improvement  of  our  common  roads.  The 
economic  effect  of  the  iron  ways  is  to  bring  the  commercial  products 
of  distant  regions  into  free  competition  in  all  our  great  markets. 
One  of  the  results  of  the  cheap  carriage  on  these  modern  ways  of 
communication  has  been  to  put  the  farmer  of  Massachusetts  at  a 
singular  and  often  hopeless  disadvantage,  as  compared  with  the 
position  of  his  competitors  in  distant  parts  of  the  country  ;  if  he  lives 
five  miles  from  a  railway  town,  and  has  to  market  the  products  of  his 
farm  by  carrying  them  over  a  bad  road,  he  may,  in  a  commercial 
sense,  be  farther  away  from  that  town  than  he  would  be  if  he  dwelt 
on  the  line  of  a  railway  in  Illinois  or  Iowa.  Among  the  several 
influences  which  have  led  to  the  decay  of  New  England  agriculture, 
this  tax  imposed  by  bad  roads,  which  serves  to  favor  the  distant 
producer,  deserves  a  foremost  place.  Of  all  the  burdens  which  our 
farmers  bear,  this  is  the  one  which  can  be  most  readily  and  com- 
pletely removed.  That  it  ever  was  imposed  is  a  discredit  to  our 
people. 

Although  the  commercial  value  of  good  roads  is  a  matter  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  a  people,  their  greatest  value  is  to  be  found  in 
the  influence  they  exercise  on  the  social  and  moral  conditions  of  the 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  7 

districts  which  they  serve.  In  all  societies  the  tone  of  the  life  to  a 
great  extent  depends  on  the  ease  with  which  the  intercourse  between 
the  households  can  be  maintained.  The  people  of  this  country  are, 
however,  particularly  dependent  on  their  contacts  ;  a  self -governed 
folk,  their  communities  need  a  ready  access  to  each  other.  Common 
understandings  bred  of  close  acquaintance  are  the  basis  of  their  life. 
The  tax  which  bad  roads  put  upon  town  meetings,  attendance  on 
schools  and  churches,  and  their  other  modes  of  associated  action,  is 
an  evil  which  should  not  be  patiently  endured. 

The  statistics  of  this  country  show  an  ever-increasing  tendency  on 
the  part  of  our  people  to  gather  into  the  cities.  Although  this 
relative  gain  in  the  urban  population  is  doubtless  due  to  a  diversity 
of  influences,  there  can  be  no  question  that  one  of  the  reasons  for  it 
is  to  be  found  in  the  condition  of  our  country  roads.  In  the  present 
state  of  these  ways,  country  life  is  made  much  less  agreeable  and 
profitable  than  it  would  be  if  the  tax  which  bad  roads  imposed  were 
done  away  with.  The  evidence  goes  to  show  that  our  people  are  in 
many  regards  better  placed  in  well-conditioned  rural  districts  than  in 
the  great  towns.  All  those  who  are  considerate  of  our  future  desire 
to  see  every  hindrance  to  the  development  of  our  rural  population 
removed,  in  order  that  the  folk  may  be  induced  to  retain  that  hold 
upon  the  soil  which  has  been  for  ages  the  basis  of  their  strength. 
Clearly  the  first  step  to  attain  this  end  is  to  improve  the  condition  of 
our  highways. 


8  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


CHAPTER    I. 
TOPOGRAPHY  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

In  Relation  to  Highways. 

The  condition  of  the  roads  of  this  Commonwealth  is  to  a  great 
extent  determined  by  the  peculiar  shape  of  its  surface.  In  most 
countries  the  form  of  the  land  is  brought  about  by  the  forces  which 
have  uplifted  the  underlying  rocks,  and  by  the  down-wearing  action 
of  the  water  which  has  flowed  over  the  earth  on  its  way  from  the 
uplands  to  the  sea.  In  these  conditions  we  generally  find  that  the 
surface  of  the  earth  exhibits  continuous  declivities  extending  from 
the  divides  between  the  great  streams  to  the  lower  levels  of  the  main 
roads,  and  thence  to  the  sea.  All  the  slopes,  in  a  word,  are  such  as 
favor  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  the  surface  waters. 

Wherever,  as  in  Massachusetts,  the  country  has  recently  been 
much  affected  by  glacial  action,  this  normal  state  of  the  surface  of 
the  earth  is  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  lost.  The  rocks  become  carved 
into  irregular  basins  and  ridges,  and  the  diversity  of  the  earth's  out- 
line is  still  further  increased  by  irregular  and  often  very  great  mounds 
of  rubbish.  The  ancient  valleys,  formed  before  the  glacial  epoch, 
can  usually  be  traced,  but  the  details  of  the  topography  given  by  the 
ancient  streams  are  profoundly  modified.  The  reason  for  this  change 
of  conditions  is  simple  ;  the  motion  of  a  glacier  differs  from  that  of  a 
river  in  that  the  stream  of  ice  not  only  cuts  with  intense  energy  but 
tends  to  excavate  the  rocks  in  the  measure  of  their  hardness.  In  the 
course  of  its  action  it  may  carve  out  deep  basins,  into  which  the  ice 
in  its  movement  descends  and  from  which  it  ascends  with  consider- 
able freedom.  If  we  could  strip  away  the  deposits  of  sand,  clay  and 
boulders  which  cover  Massachusetts,  we  should  find  the  surface  of 
the  bed  rocks  to  exhibit  a  great  number  of  these  basins,  varying  in 
depth  and  area,  but  in  some  places  occupying  an  extent  of  many 
square  miles,  and  descending  a  hundred  feet  or  more  below  the 
general  level  of  the  country. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  9 

As  the  glacial  sheet  moved  over  the  surface  which  it  occupied, 
large  quantities  of  detritus  worn  from  the  bed  rocks  were  mingled 
with  the  ice,  the  fragments  working  up  in  many  cases  to  a  height  of 
perhaps  a  hundred  feet  or  more  above  the  base  of  the  glacier.  When 
the  glacial  sheet  melted  away,  this  debris  fell  in  a  confused  order 
upon  the  surface,  and  forms  the  sheet  of  commingled  pebbles  and 
clay  to  which  geologists  give  the  name  of  "  till,"  a  deposit  which 
covers  nearly  all  the  areas  which  were  occupied  by  the  glacial 
envelope.  Owing  to  the  irregular  way  in  which  the  waste  from  the 
rocks  was  mingled  with  the  ice,  and  to  other  accidents  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  consider,  this  till  layer  is  of  irregular  thickness,  and 
serves  still  further  to  diversify  the  form  of  the  surface. 

At  various  times  during  the  retreat  of  the  ice  sheet,  when  its  wall- 
like  front  fell  back  to  the  northward,  there  were  pauses  in  the  back- 
ward movement,  and  even  temporary  readvances,  which  brought 
about  the  accumulation  of  long,  irregular  mounds  of  boulders,  peb- 
bles and  sands  next  the  ice  front,  which  are  termed  "  moraines."  In 
some  parts  of  Massachusetts,  particularly  in  the  south-eastern  section 
of  the  Commonwealth,  these  frontal  moraines  attain  a  considerable 
height,  and  have  an  important  effect  on  the  topography.  They  are 
particularly  conspicuous  in  the  section  between  Plymouth  and  the 
southern  end  of  Elizabeth  Islands.  At  Manomet  Hill  one  of  these 
moraines  rises  to  the  height  of  about  four  hundred  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  is  evidently  continued  downward  for  some  hundred  feet  below 
the  ocean  level.  In  the  region  to  the  north  and  west  there  are 
numerous  less  denned  frontal  moraines,  which,  though  much  less  con- 
spicuous, have  a  marked  effect  on  the  form  of  the  surface. 

While  the  ice  lay  on  this  region,  and  particularly  during  the  time 
when  it  was  melting  away,  considerable  streams  of  fluid  water  flowed 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth  beneath  ice  arches  which  led  to  the 
margin  of  the  glacier.  These  subglacial  rivers  flowed  with  great 
energy,  conveying  large  quantities  of  sand  and  gravel  which  were 
accumulated  in  the  open  air  or  beneath  the  sea,  the  shore  being  then 
lower  than  at  present,  in  the  form  of  extensive  sand  plains,  such  as 
form  the  south-eastern  portion  of  Martha's  Vineyard,  a  great  part  of 
Cape  Cod  and  much  of  the  area  of  Bristol  and  Plymouth  counties. 
Similar  though  much  smaller  sand  plains,  produced  in  a  like  manner, 


10  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 

are  found  in  other  parts  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  greater  portion 
of  the  plain  which  borders  the  Connecticut  River  owes  its  origin  to 
actions  of  this  class. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  glacial  epoch,  as  the  subglacial  streams 
became  enfeebled,  the  ice  arches  in  which  they  had  flowed  were  to  a 
great  extent  filled  in  with  rock  debris,  so  that  when  the  ice  had 
entirely  disappeared  the  position  of  the  old  stream  arches  was  marked 
by  long,  low  mounds  of  sand  and  gravel,  shaped  in  the  glacial 
caverns  ;  these  deposits,  even  in  an  early  day,  attracted  the  attention 
of  observant  people  ;  their  very  artificial  look  led  to  the  supposition 
that  they  had  been  formed  by  the  hand  of  man,  and  they  received  in 
New  England  the  name  of  Indian  ridges.  Certain  deposits  of  this 
nature  remain  so  well  preserved  that  they  may  be  traced  with  toler- 
able distinctness  for  a  distance  of  thirty  miles  or  more  in  their  general 
course  from  north  to  south.  They  usually  lie  in  the  valleys,  but,  as 
the  caverns  in  which  they  were  formed  went  up  hill  and  down,  they 
sometimes  crossed  considerable  elevations. 

Yet  another  and  as  yet  unexplained  group  of  glacial  deposits, 
known  as  drumlins  or  lenticular  hills,  sometimes  termed  "  hog 
backs,"  plentifully  occur  in  various  parts  of  southern  New  England ; 
they  are  well  exhibited  in  the  country  between  the  Connecticut  valley 
and  the  sea.  These  regularly  arched  hills  often  rise  to  the  height  of 
a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  more  above  the  general  surface  of  the 
country  on  which  they  lie.  They  are  composed  of  firmly  packed  clay, 
commingled  with  sand,  gravel  and  boulders ;  in  this  regard  they 
closely  resemble  the  before-mentioned  deposits  of  till.  In  their  regular 
outline,  where  this  feature  is  most  characteristically  exhibited,  they 
differ  greatly  from  the  other  deposits  of  glacial  waste.  Although 
there  are  a.  few  instances  in  which  solitary  drumlins  occur  within  the 
limits  of  this  Commonwealth,  as  a  rule  they  are  grouped  in  fields,  in 
which  they  lie  so  crowded  together  that  their  bases  are  almost  in 
contact  with  each  other.  The  richest  field  of  their  development  in 
Massachusetts  is  in  the  section  just  west  of  Worcester.  As  the 
elevations  of  this  group  are  always  steep  sides,  their  effect  upon  the 
distribution  of  the  highways  of  the  State  is  singularly  great.  They 
qualify  the  direction  of  these  ways  in  a  more  important  manner  than 
any  other  features  in  the  topography  except  the  high  mountain 
ridges/ 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  11 

Near  the  sea-shore,  where  the  winds  from  the  quarters  between  the 
north  and  south  around  by  the  west  blow  upon  the  shore,  and  even  in 
some  cases  where  the  shore  is  exposed  only  to  easterly  winds,  there 
are  considerable  accumulations  of  dune  sands,  i.  e.,  those  brought 
together  by  wind  action.  These  deposits  have  a  characteristic  incohe- 
rent structure,  — they  are  always  composed  of  fine  sand  or  very  small 
pebbles  ;  the  mass  contains  little  except  the  silicious  fragments,  and 
on  this  account  the  grains  never  adhere  to  each  other.  Fortunately 
in  Massachusetts  the  dune  deposits  occupy  an  aggregate  area  of  less 
than  a  hundred  square  miles,  for  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  material  of 
this  nature  is  among  the  most  difficult  with  which  the  road  architect 
has  to  deal. 

On  a  properly  constructed  geological  road  map  of  Massachusetts  it 
would  be  necessary  to  add  to  the  foregoing  list  of  deposits  two  other 
small  groups,  namely,  the  beach  sands  and  the  swamp  accumulations. 
Although  accumulations  belonging  to  these  classes  occupy  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  surface  of  the  Commonwealth,  it  is  rarely  the  case 
that  any  effort  is  made  to  carry  highways  over  their  areas,  it  being 
well  known  that  where  possible  it  is  best  to  make  extensive  detours 
rather  than  to  endeavor  to  construct  ways  over  materials  of  this 
nature. 

The  distribution  of  the  classes  of  superficial  deposits  above  men- 
tioned is  peculiar  and  striking.  The  material  known  as  till  generally 
occupies  the  high-lying  ground  of  the  Commonwealth ;  thus,  in  the 
region  west  of  the  Connecticut  valley  deposits  of  this  nature  occupy 
more  than  nine-tenths  of  the  area  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Com- 
monwealth. In  the  Connecticut  valley,  at  least  in  the  region  near 
the  level  of  the  stream,  the  washed  gravels  and  sands  and  their 
associated  clays  occupy  very  nearly  the  whole  of  the  surface.  In  the 
high  ground  between  the  Connecticut  valley  and  the  sea,  which  we 
may  well  term  the  Worcester  table  lands,  the  till  again  predominates  ; 
indeed,  in  this  part  of  the  Commonwealth  it  probably  constitutes,  if 
we  reckon  with  it  the  deposits  of  the  drumlins,  three-fourths  of  the 
surface.  On  the  lowlands  next  the  coast,  especially  in  the  counties 
of  Bristol,  Plymouth,  Barnstable,  Dukes  and  Nantucket,  the  stratified 
sands  and  gravels  occupy  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  area,  being 
as  predominant  in  that  field  as  are  the  accumulations  of  till  in  the 
Berkshire  district. 


12  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 

Having  thus  briefly  sketched  the  distribution  of  the  superficial 
deposits  in  Massachusetts,  we  may  proceed  to  consider  the  effect  of 
the  conditions  which  these  groups  of  deposits  impose  upon  the  areas 
they  occupy.  Beginning  with  the  Berkshire  district,  and  including 
in  that  region  all  the  elevated  land  west  of  the  great  plain  of  the 
Connecticut  valley,  we  find  a  field  favorable  for  the  study  as  to  the 
topographic  and  road  effects  of  accumulations  of  till  which  abound  in 
this  field.  Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  state  of  the  roads 
in  that  part  of  the  Commonwealth  will  recognize  the  fact  that  the 
mixture  of  clay,  sand  and  pebbles  which  constitutes  the  till  has  a 
very  decided  effect  upon  the  condition  of  the  roads.  In  dry  seasons, 
and  generally  in  the  summer  half  of  the  year,  the  highways  have 
an  excellent  character,  being  fairly  smooth  in  all  parts  of  the  hill 
district,  except  where  the  ground  is  more  than  usually  wet  or  has 
been  subjected  to  very  heavy  wagon  travel.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  the  frost  enters  the  ground,  and  so  long  as  the  effect  of 
freezing  is  traceable,  the  condition  of  the  roads,  except  when  their 
surfaces  may  be  masked  by  a  coating  of  ice  or  snow,  is  commonly 
very  bad.  In  the  beginning  of  the  winter,  when  the  roads  are  partly 
frozen,  and  again  in  the  spring,  when  they  are  thawed  but  not  yet 
dried,  a  large  part  of  the  ways  in  this  section  of  the  State  are 
essentially  impassable,  being  in  this  regard  much  like  the  clay  roads 
of  other  countries. 

An  observant  person  will  remark  the  fact  that  the  resistance  to  the 
wheels  of  the  till  roads  in  the  Berkshire  district  and  elsewhere  may 
be  pretty  closely  measured  by  noting  the  proportion  of  pebbly  and 
sandy  matter  to  the  more  finely  divided  matter  which  we  commonly 
term  clay.  Where  the  coarse  material  largely  predominates,  the 
effect  of  wetness  or  of  frost  becomes  lessened ;  there  are  indeed 
forms  of  till  which  afford  excellent  road  material  for  all  seasons  of 
the  year.  In  many  cases  the  feature  above  indicated  may  serve  as  a 
valuable  guide  in  determining  the  treatment  which  should  be  given  to 
roads  which  lie  upon  till  deposits ;  in  general,  the  aim  should  be  to 
increase  the  amount  of  small  yet  visible  fragments  in  the  material  of 
the  roadway  ;  in  fact,  the  coarser  this  waste  imbedded  in  the  clay  may 
be,  so  far  at  least  as  is  consistent  with  a  smooth  road,  the  better  for 
the  ways.  Where  other  coarse  materials  are  wanting,  experience  in 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  13 

Massachusetts  and  elsewhere  shows  that  any  vegetable  matter  of  a 
shredded  nature  and  of  a  tough  fibre  —  such  as  chopped  straw,  wood 
shredded  in  the  manner  of  material  called  "  excelsior,"  or  even 
slender  twigs  and  shoots  chopped  into  bits  by  the  axe  and  mingled 
with  the  clay  —  is  likely  to  improve  the  roadway. 

It  is  well  for  those  who  are  interested  in  roads  to  recognize  the 
reason  why  a  way  resting  upon  clay  is  so  peculiarly  soft  at  the  time 
when  the  frost  leaves  the  ground.  A  clear  understanding  on  this 
point  makes  the  task  of  seeking  a  remedy  more  simple,  though 
curiously  enough  it  has  not  yet  found  a  place  in  our  text-books  or 
treatises  on  the  soil.  This  explanation  is  as  follows :  When  the 
winter  rains  have  entered  the  earth,  and  there  freeze,  the  water,  or 
rather  the  crystals  of  ice  formed  from  it,  by  the  expansion  which 
takes  place  in  the  process  of  freezing,  is  forced  in  between  the  faces 
of  all  the  grains  of  the  soil,  thus  pushing  them  apart  and  breaking  up 
the  old  adhesions  of  the  adjacent  surfaces  which  in  a  dry  time  give 
the  road  its  character.  When  the  next  thawing  takes  place,  the 
water  returning  to  its  molten  state  near  the  surface,  while  in  the 
deeper  parts  it  remains  frozen,  the  interspaces  between  the  grains 
just  released  from  the  bondage  of  frost  become  again  filled  with 
water,  which  is  in  turn  expanded  by  the  next  freezing  ;  in  this  manner 
the  fine  fragments  which  compose  the  soil  are  to  a  certain  extent 
separated  from  each  other  in  a  way  which  they  were  not  in  the  dry 
and  warm  time.  The  film  of  water  between  these  grains  is  not  easily 
expelled  and  does  not  readily  drain  away,  being  held  in  its  position 
by  the  action  known  as  capillarity,  the  condition  which  sucks  water 
into  a  sponge  or  oil  into  a  lamp  wick. 

When  the  particles  of  clay  have  been  separated  from  each  other  by 
the  action  of  repeated  frost  in  the  manner  above  described,  their 
condition  is  substantially  that  of  quicksand ;  the  water  is  so  firmly 
held  that  it  will  not  drain  away  ;  it  must  be  dried  out.  The  aim  of 
any  admixtures  which  may  be  made  with  this  clay  is  to  prevent  the 
particles  slipping  on  each  other  by  introducing  some  material  which 
may  serve  to  bind  them  together.  If  there  be  a  great  number  of 
fibres  introduced  into  the  mass,  the  pressure  of  a  wheel  will  be  dis- 
tributed over  so  large  a  number  of  bits  that  even  the  imperfect 
adhesion  of  the  particles  on  each  other  will  serve  to  uphold  the 


14  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 

weight.  If  the  reader  would  get  an  idea  of  how  capillary  attraction 
may  hold  water  between  two  adjacent  surfaces,  permitting  them  to 
move  over  each  other  with  a  certain  but  not  complete  freedom,  he  may 
find  an  excellent  illustration  by  putting  two  sheets  of  glass  together, 
with  a  film  of  water  between  them. 

From  the  above  description  it  is  easily  seen  that  any  fibrous  sub- 
stance mixed  with  clay  acts  in  two  ways  :  — 

First,  it  assists  in  draining  off  the  water  in  far  less  time  than  it  can 
dry  out. 

Second,  it  distributes  the  load  through  the  fibres  over  a  larger  arear 
thus  preventing  the  wheel  from  breaking  through  the  surface  and 
settling  down  to  the  yet  unthawed  clay  which  lies  at  the  lower  plane. 

While  temporary  relief  may  be  obtained  by  such  treatment,  it 
cannot  give  conditions  that  are  permanently  satisfactory,  and  cannot 
be  recommended  except  in  cases  where  good  materials  are  not  obtain- 
able without  the  outlay  of  more  money  than  is  warranted  by  the 
traffic  on  the  road.  Even  the  light  wagons  settle  the  surface,  until 
the  fibres  carry  the  load ;  and  with  heavy  wagons  the  wheels  are  at 
all  times  in  a  depression,  and  the  horses  are  constantly  wasting 
power  to  force  down  the  wave  in  front  of  the  wheel.  Light  carnages 
may  easily  pass  over  such  a  road,  but  wagons  of  burden  would, 
during  the  spring  thaws,  probably  be  unable  to  carry  more  than  a 
half  ton  to  each  horse. 

This  brings  us  to  the  first  principle  of  scientific  road  building, 
which  can  be  expressed  in  three  words,  viz.,  a  dry  foundation. 
Without  a  dry  foundation,  the  labor  of  the  roadmaster  will  be  wasted, 
and  the  maximum  cost  with  the  minimum  good  will  result.  A  further 
discussion  of  methods  required  to  obtain  and  retain  a  dry  foundation 
will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  road  building. 

In  the  fields  occupied  by  sand  and  gravel,  materials  deposited  from 
the  water  which  escaped  in  the  sub-glacial  rivers  to  the  open  ground 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  ice,  we  find  roadway  conditions  which  are 
sharply  contrasted  with  those  last  mentioned.  Owing  to  the  circum- 
stances of  their  formation,  these  stratified  beds  are  composed  of 
materials  from  which  the  clay  has  been  washed  out,  leaving  generally 
only  the  angular  fragments  of  sand  and  the  small  pebbles,  all  of 
which  being  so  large  that  the  water  is  not  held  in  the  interspaces  by 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  15 

the  capillary  attraction  in  such  quantities  as  will  permit  the  particles 
to  slide  over  each  other.  The  result  is  that  when  moistened  there  are 
still  enough  of  the  surfaces  in  contact  to  produce  the  friction 
necessary  to  keep  the  particles  from  slipping  by  each  other  when 
pressed  by  the  wheel.  The  small  amount  of  water  which  is  retained 
in  the  mass  tends  in  a  way  to  hold  the  bits  against  each  other.  To 
these  conditions  is  probably  due  the  fact  that  sandy  roads  when  damp 
are  usually  rather  firm  ;  on  the  other  hand,  when  dry  and  subject  to 
frequent  treading  by  wheels,  the  surfaces  of  the  grains,  having 
nothing  to  bind  them  together,  slip  over  each  other  with  something 
like  the  ease  with  which  shot  move  when  pressed  by  the  hand. 

The  sand  deposits  accumulated  by  the  wind  and  the  higher  lying 
sands  on  the  beaches,  which  have  generally  been  brought  into  their 
position  in  part  by  wind  and  in  part  by  wave  action,  have,  when 
trodden  by  the  wheels,  the  same  quality  as  have  those  which  have 
been  accumulated  by  the  streams  emerging  from  the  glacier. 
When  wet  they  are  tolerably  firm,  but  when  dry  the  fragments 
move  readily  under  the  shearing  action  of  the  wheel,  and  make 
difficult  ways  for  carriages.  The  same  is  the  case  in  those  rather 
exceptional  fields  where  the  ground  is  covered  by  a  layer  of 
pebbles.  These  smooth  fragments  are  easily  shoved  about  by 
pressure  in  the  same  manner  as  the  smaller  bits  of  sand.  These 
pebble  roads  are  instructive,  for  they  show  in  a  large  way,  in  a 
manner  which  is  visible  to  the  eye,  the  effect  of  pressure  on  the  small 
fragments  of  rock,  thus  enabling  us  to  understand  the  conditions 
which  the  wheel  encounters  on  sand  roads.  These  deposits  of 
pebbles  are  not  affected  by  moisture,  the  interspaces  being  so  large 
that  the  water  is  not  retained  between  the  adjacent  faces. 

Where  frontal  moraines  have  been  formed,  we  generally  find  thick 
accumulations  of  debris,  in  part  composed  of  wasted  sand  and 
gravel,  but  to  a  considerable  extent  made  up  of  large  boulders.  In 
some  cases  these  fragments  of  great  size  are  so  numerous  that  they 
completely  cover  the  ground  and  are  piled  one  on  top  of  the  other, 
looking  like  the  ruins  of  cyclopean  masonry.  In  all  cases  these 
moraines  contain  so  much  stony  material  in  the  form  of  large 
boulders  that  the  construction  of  roads  over  them  is  difficult  and 
sometimes  almost  impossible.  Fortunately  almost  all  the  moraines 


16  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

of  New  England  are  somewhat  discontinuous,  their  walls  being 
breached  at  the  points  where  the  streams  from  beneath  the  glacier 
maintained  gorges  for  their  passage.  These  openings  are  generally 
floored  with  sand  or  gravel,  and  thus  provide  places  for  roadways. 
A  conspicuous  case  of  this  nature  is  found  in  the  breach  through  the 
Elizabeth  Island  moraine  in  the  town  of  Bourne,  which  affords  a  pass 
for  the  railway  and  carriage  road. 

The  bouldery  fields  of  Massachusetts  are  not  limited  to  the 
moraines.  In  those  places  where  the  glacier  passed  over  areas  of 
rock  which,  owing  to  the  form  of  the  joints  and  other  fracture  lines, 
afforded  large  masses  to  the  ice,  we  often  find  that  the  till  is  to  a 
great  extent  made  up  of  large  fragments  of  rock  which  afford  very 
serious  obstacles  to  the  construction  of  highways.  These  stony  belts 
are,  as  might  be  expected,  occasionally  extended  in  the  direction  of 
the  glacial  movement  for  distances  of  many  miles.  In  some  parts  of 
the  Commonwealth,  notably  in  the  western  portion  of  the  Berkshire 
hills  and  in  the  Worcester  table  lands,  these  trails  of  great  boulders 
not  infrequently  are  found  to  be  very  inconvenient  obstacles,  not 
only  to  the  farmer  whose  fields  they  make  untillable,  but  to  the  road- 
master  who  has  to  build  his  way  past  them. 

The  deposits  of  stratified  sand  and  gravel,  though  generally 
affording  tolerably  level  paths  for  roadways,  occasionally  present 
either  of  two  topographic  features  which  are  very  inconvenient  to 
those  who  have  to  construct  highways  in  such  districts.  The  eskers, 
or  Indian  ridges,  those  accumulations  of  boulders,  sand  and  gravel 
which  were  formed  beneath  the  ancient  ice  arches,  are  often  continu- 
ous embankments,  with  sides  having  slopes  of  thirty  degrees  or 
more,  and  with  an  altitude  of  from  thirty  to  a  hundred  feet.  It  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  undertake  costly  excavations  in  order  to 
provide  a  moderately  level  way  by  these  ridges.  In  other  cases  the 
sand  plains  which  commonly  are  formed  at  the  end  of  the  eskers  are 
in  their  northern  parts  varied  by  deep  pits,  which  may  contain  small 
lakes  or  bogs  which  have  been  formed  in  them.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  these  irregularities  are  so  numerous  as  to  make  the  con- 
struction of  ways  very  difficult. 

The  swamps  of  Massachusetts,  though  occupying  perhaps  not 
more  than  one-twentieth  of  the  surface,  have  proved  exceedingly 


IMPROVEMENT   OF    HIGHWAYS.  17 

embarrassing  features  in  a  construction  of  roadways,  when  as  in 
most  cases  the  area  which  they  occupy  does  not  exceed  a  square 
mile  ;  the  impediments  which  they  impose  in  the  way  of  the  roads 
which  surround  them  are  not  necessarily  serious,  but  many  deposits  of 
this  description  are  of  great  extent,  and  have  an  elongate  form  which 
makes  them  serious  barriers  in  the  way  of  our  roads.  An  instance 
of  this  sort  is  found  in  Great  Cedar  Swamp,  north  of  Taunton,  which 
from  the  settlement  of  the  country  to  the  present  day  has  hindered 
the  communication  between  adjacent  towns.  Large  bogs  generally 
contain  deep  deposits  of  peat,  and,  owing  to  the  yielding  nature  of 
this  substance,  they  are  as  impassable  as  the  lakes  in  which  they 
were  formed  would  have  been  had  they  remained  in  a  state  of  open 
water. 

Although  the  lakes  of  Massachusetts  have  to  a  great  extent  been 
closed  by  accumulations  of  vegetable  deposits,  they  still  remain  to 
the  number  of  thousands,  though  the  greater  part  of  them  are  of 
relatively  small  size.  Of  the  hundreds  which  exceed  half  a  mile  in 
length,  nearly  all  have  added  something  to  the  cost  of  our  roadways 
by  requiring  considerable  detours  in  the  line  of  these  constructions.  A 
careful  study  of  the  roadways  of  the  Commonwealth  would  probably 
show  that  more  than  a  thousand  miles  of  somewhat  costly  roads  have 
been  made  necessary  by  the  detours  required  by  the  existing  lakes, 
and  perhaps  a  yet  greater  amount  to  escape  the  bogs  which  occupy 
the  former  sites  of  such  water  areas. 

Yet  another  tax  in  the  way  of  road  construction,  due  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  surface  of  Massachusetts  which  were  imposed  by  the 
events  of  the  glacial  period,  is  to  be  found  in  the  form  of  the  coast 
lines.  This  fringe  of  the  shore  is  characterized  by  a  very  great 
number  of  originally  wide  and  deep  re-entrances,  which  admit  the 
sea  waters  far  into  the  land.  At  many  points  these  basins  which  are 
visited  by  the  tide  have  been  in  a  measure  closed  by  marine  marshes, 
but  everywhere  they  remain  formidable  difficulties  in  the  way  of  road 
construction.  The  tidal  channels  have  to  be  bridged,  and  the  surface 
of  the  neighboring  marshes,  which  never  rise  to  the  level  of  high 
tide,  has  to  be  crossed  on  considerable  embankments.  Roads  in 
these  positions  are  relatively  very  costly,  and  the  hundred  miles  or 


18  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

more  of  such  ways  which  have  been  constructed  within  the  limits  of 
the  Commonwealth  have  entailed  a  very  large  expenditure. 

Owing  to  the  imperfectly  organized  condition  of  the  drainage  in 
Massachusetts,  a  feature  which  is  due  to  the  perturbations  brought 
about  by  the  glacial  period,  the  number  of  streams  is  uncommonly 
great.  The  banks  and  bottoms  of  even  the  smaller  rivulets  are  com- 
monly marshy,  and  nee'd  to  be  crossed  by  bridges.  The  result  is  that 
for  its  area  this  Commonwealth  has  perhaps  a  greater  number  of 
these  structures  than  any  other  region  in  the  world.  Moreover,  the 
conditions  of  their  foundations  are  often  such  as  to  entail  a  large 
first  cost.  Fortunately  this  region,  owing  to  the  generally  porous 
character  of  the  drift  coating,  and  to  the  numerous  lakes  which  like- 
wise serve  to  retain  for  a  time  the  storm  waters,  is  remarkably 
exempt  from  floods  which  are  likely  to  carry  bridges  away. 

The  foregoing  statement  will  show  the  reader  that  the  surface  con- 
ditions of  this  Commonwealth  entail  great  difficulties  in  the  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  good  highways.  The  disturbance  of  the 
ancient  topography,  brought  about  by  the  glacial  period,  has  given 
an  exceeding  variety  of  outline  to  the  surface  ;  the  result  is  that  level 
roads,  except  in  parts  of  the  Connecticut  valley  and  on  the  sand 
plains  in  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  State,  are  almost  unknown. 
The  average  grade  of  the  highways  is  necessarily  great,  while  the 
care  and  skill  required  of  the  roadmaster  in  determining  the  align- 
ment of  the  proposed  way  is  such  that  only  the  well-trained  engineer, 
conducting  his  work  with  all  the  resources  which  his  science  affords, 
is  competent  to  execute  the  task  in  a  proper  manner. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  the  reader  an  adequate  conception  of  the 
complexity  of  the  problems  which  the  diversity  in  form  and  earth 
materials  imposes  upon  those  who  have  to  do  with  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  highways  in  this  Commonwealth.  With  each 
change  in  the  slope  of  the  roadway,  commonly  in  less  than  each  mile 
of  its  length,  there  is  likely  to  be  an  important  alteration  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  underlying  materials  which  demands  some  special  treat- 
ment from  those  who  would  build  or  preserve  at  the  least  cost  a 
high-grade  road.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  be  another  equally  extensive 
area  in  this  country  or  Europe  where  the  considerations  by  which 


IMPROVEMENT   OP   HIGHWAYS.  19 

the  roadmaster  needs  to  be  guided  are  so  multifarious,  or  demand 
such  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  the  earth  with 
which  he  deals. 

If  the  conditions  of  the  ground  in  Massachusetts  were  perfectly 
uniform,  the  topography  remaining  the  same  as  at  present,  the  matter 
of  alignment  of  roads  would  of  itself  afford  questions  demanding 
very  careful  and  extended  consideration,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
excessive  costs  in  traction,  as  well  as  the  increased  expense  of  repairs 
brought  about  by  ill-placed  ways.  A  lack  of  due  skill  entails  in 
many  cases  a  grave  and  permanent  tax  on  the  community  which 
the  roadway  is  intended  to  serve.  The  annual  cost  arising  from  such 
misadventures  in  planning  roads  is  now  a  serious  burden  upon  the 
people  of  this  Commonwealth. 


20  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 


CHAPTER     II. 
ROAD  MATERIALS  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

In   Relation   to   the    Construction   of   Highways. 

Experience  in  all  countries  has  shown  that  the  soil  covering  is  in 
its  normal  state  unfitted  to  be  converted  into  a  roadway.  Whether 
this  sheet  be  formed  upon  glacial  deposits,  as  is  usually  the  case  in 
this  State,  or  produced  by  the  decay  of  the  immediately  underlying 
rocks,  as  is  characteristic  of  those  regions  which  have  not  been 
affected  by  glacial  ice,  the  upper  layer  of  the  earth  is  commonly  of 
a  very  incoherent  nature.  The  dividing  action  which  the  roots 
exercise  on  a  soil  layer,  aided  generally  by  the  work  of  frost,  serves 
to  make  the  upper  foot  or  so  of  the  section  very  incoherent.  More- 
over, the  process  of  decay,  which  is  assisted  by  the  decomposing 
vegetable  matter,  softens  the  fragments  of  rock  in  the  soil  layer  so 
that  they  commonly  grind  to  powder  under  the  tread  of  the  wheel. 

The  depth  of  the  soil  layer  in  Massachusetts  varies  greatly.  In 
the  regions  which  are  occupied  by  til)  or  boulder  clay,  we  commonly 
find  that  this  incoherent  stratum  passes  at  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  so 
into  the  more  solid  material  often  known  as  hard  pan,  a  section  which 
has  been  unaffected  by  the  action  of  roots  and  only  moderately  dis- 
turbed by  frost.  In  the  districts  underlaid  by  sand,  the  difference  in 
condition  between  the  superficial  deposits  and  those  of  greater  depth 
may  be  so  slight  as  to  be  unnoticeable.  In  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  part  of  the  earth  which  has  the  characteristics  of  soil  is  dis- 
tinctively unsuited  for  use  on  a  road  bed. 

The  glacial  waste  which  underlies  the  soil  varies  much  in  its  fitness 
to  be  used  as  road  material.  In  general,  the  till  deposits  contain  such 
large  amounts  of  clay,  that,  even  when  mingled  with  stone,  they 
afford  when  wet  a  pasty  mass  which  insures  difficult  wheeling.  In  dry 
weather,  or  even  when  but  slightly  moistened  by  summer  rains,  they 
may  serve  fairly  well ;  but  in  the  season  of  coming  and  going  frost, 
in  the  autumn  and  spring,  roads  founded  on  this  material  are  generally 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  21 

unfit  for  use.  In  proportion  as  the  pebbly  element  is  more  consider- 
able, provided,  as  is  rarely  the  case,  that  the  contained  stones  are 
small  and  the  fine  detritus  largely  composed  of  sand  grains,  till  may 
afford  material  suitable  for  use  upon  a  road  which  needs  to  be 
cheaply  constructed.  In  general,  however,  the  till  deposits  in  their 
natural  condition  may  be  regarded  as  unsuited  for  use  on  highways. 
There  may  be  places,  where  a  road  leads  over  a  hill  with  a  steep 
grade,  where  a  proper  mixing  of  till  with  a  fairly  large  proportion  of 
pebbles  or  broken  stone  of  medium  size  would  make  it  possible  to 
prevent  a  washing  out  during  severe  rains,  — an  end  which  it  would 
be  difficult  to  attain  in  any  other  way. 

The  gravel  beds  of  Massachusetts  vary  exceedingly  in  their  fitness 
for  road  construction.  Where  the  pebbles  are  mainly  of  quartz  or 
other  flinty  rock,  and  have  been  much  rounded  and  smoothed  by 
water  action,  the  material  is  certain  to  afford  a  shifting  foundation 
for  ordinary  wheels,  unless  a  large  amount  of  binding  material  is 
used  with  the  pebbles,  in  which  case  the  road  becomes  very  muddy  in 
wet  weather.  Where,  however,  the  pebbly  matter  has  been  derived 
from  rocks  of  varied  constitution,  especially  where,  as  is  often  the 
case,  the  bits  have  generally  undergone  a  certain  amount  of  decay, 
the  mass  is  likely,  when  well  rolled  either  by  steam  rollers  or  even  by 
broad-tired  wheels,  to  become  consolidated  so  as  to  afford  a  fairly 
good  road.  In  general  the  recommendable  gravels  of  Massachusetts 
are  limited  to  those  districts  where  the  stratified  pebbly  beds  are 
commingled  with  the  deposits  of  till.  In  the  eastern  and  south- 
eastern sections  of  the  State,  where  we  find  wide  areas  composed 
almost  altogether  of  these  gravels  and  sands  which  have  been 
washed  free  of  clay,  the  pebbles  are  generally  of  a  flinty  nature,  and, 
without  the  addition  of  some  binding  material,  are  unfitted  for  use 
on  roads.  The  reason  for  this  peculiarity  in  distribution  is  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  that  the  pebbles  on  this  extreme  border  of  the 
glacial  field  have  generally  journeyed  far,  and  only  the  hardest  of 
the  materials  have  survived  the  wearing  which  the  distant  carriage 
imposed  upon  them. 

Here  and  there  in  Massachusetts,  particularly  in  the  eastern  section 
of  the  State,  beds  of  gravel  may  be  found  where  the  fragments,  not 
much  worn  by  water  action,  retain  an  angular  character  and  have  a 


22  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

slight  admixture  of  clay  which  has  served  to  prevent  the  process  of 
superficial  decay,  so  that  the  mass  has  the  bluish  hue  of  broken  rock 
which  is  often  noticeable  in  stone  after  it  has  passed  through  the 
crusher.  Gravel  of  this  nature  is  always  well  suited  to  road  making, 
provided  the  fragments  are  properly  selected,  and  are  not  to  too  great 
an  extent  composed  of  slate.  In  general  it  is  the  best  suited  for 
road  material  of  any  deposits  which  can  be  used  without  breaking, 
and  in  conditions  of  moderate  use  makes  a  good,  enduring  and 
economical  roadway. 

As  yet  the  distribution  of  blue  gravels  in  Massachusetts  is  not  well 
determined  ;  they  probably  exist  in  very  many  places  where  they  have 
not  been  found,  and  this  for  the  reason  that  the  surface  of  such  beds 
always  exhibits  a  characteristic  reddish-yellow  hue  common  to  the 
upper  parts  of  all  gravel  beds  which  have  been  subjected  to  the  action 
of  the  weather. 

The  sands  of  this  and  other  countries  are  essentially  unsuited  for 
use  as  road  material.  If  fine  grained  and  well  filled  with  water,  they 
may,  in  the  manner  of  some  of  our  sand  beaches,  afford  an  excellent 
surface  for  wheels  bearing  light  loads  ;  but  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
year,  even  a  few  hours  after  a  rain,  the}T  become  so  far  dried  that  the 
adjacent  surface  of  the  grains,  deprived  of  the  slight  degree  of 
.adhesion  which  the  capillary  attraction  operating  on  a  film  of  water 
•affords,  easily  slip  by  each  other  when  pressed  with  the  weight  of 
a  light  carriage.  Wherever  it  is  possible  to  commingle  a  certain 
amount  of  clay  with  the  sand,  the  adhesion  of  the  grain  thus  brought 
.about  is  certain  greatly  to  improve  the  character  of  the  road  bed. 

In  many  parts  of  the  Commonwealth,  particularly  in  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  State,  where  the  ways  are  generally  founded  on 
the  washed  sands  or  gravels,  the  readiest  means  of  bettering  their 
condition  is  to  be  found  in  the  admixture  of  clays  with  the  sandy  or 
gravelly  material,  although  it  is  questionable  whether  this  method  of 
treatment  is  in  the  long  run  economical. 

The  bed  rocks  of  Massachusetts  afford  a  remarkable  variety  of 
materials  suitable  for  the  construction  of  roads.  There  is  scarcely  a 
point  in  the  Commonwealth  where,  from  the  deposits  formed  before 
the  glacial  period,  it  is  not  possible  within  five  miles  to  find  deposits 
which  are  tolerably  well  suited  for  the  construction  of  smooth  and 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  23 

enduring  ways.  In  their  character  these  materials  vary  from  the  soft 
rocks  of  the  tertiary  and  the  cretaceous  ages,  such  as  occur  in  south- 
eastern Massachusetts,  to  the  hard  and  tough  trap  rocks  which  are  so 
plentifully  distributed  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Common- 
wealth. Within  the  limits  of  this  report  it  will  not  be  possible  to 
give  a  detailed  account  as  to  the  quality  of  these  various  stones,  or 
the  places  in  which  they  may  be  found.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to 
make  some  few  statements  concerning  the  fitness  of  these  materials 
for  road  making,  and  the  circumstances  of  their  occurrence. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that,  for  purposes  of  road  construction, 
a  rock  should  be  at  once  hard,  tough,  resistant  to  the  ordinary  agents 
of  decay,  yet  easily  broken  into  bits  by  the  road  hammer,  or  its 
modern  equivalent,  the  crushing  engine.  When  fractured,  the  frag- 
ments of  stone  must  not  have  smooth  faces ;  they  should  on  the 
contrary  have  very  rough  surfaces,  in  order  that  when  driven  together 
they  may  unite  in  a  somewhat  solid  manner.  It  is  also  very 
advantageous  if  the  powdery  material  formed  by  the  broken  stone 
have  some  share  of  that  cementing  or  *'  setting"  quality  which  per- 
tains to  mortars  and  cements.  Within  the  limits  of  Massachusetts 
only  one  group  of  rocks,  those  known  as  traps,  possess  in  a  high 
degree  the  above-mentioned  assemblage  of  qualities.  These  trappean 
deposits  in  all  cases  consist  of  materials  once  molten,  which  in  their 
fluid  state  were  forced  into  or  through  fissures  of  the  more  ancient 
rocks ;  afterwards  these  lavas  cooled  down  at  the  time  when  what  is 
the  present  surface  was  buried  beneath  a  great  thickness  of  formations 
which  have  since  been  worn  away.  Produced  under  these  conditions, 
these  volcanic  deposits  in  this  and  other  countries  are  admirably 
adapted  for  the  needs  of  the  roadmaker ;  the  exceptions  in  which 
they  are  not  so  fit  are  but  few ;  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
traps  of  Massachusetts  afford  excellent  road  metal.  In  addition  to 
the  qualities  above  mentioned,  rocks  of  this  nature  generally  contain 
considerable  amounts  of  iron,  which,  becoming  more  oxidized  in  the 
road  bed,  add  to  the  cementing  value  of  the  material. 

The  trappean  rocks  of  Massachusetts  are  altogether  limited  to  the 
older  strata.  In  the  Berkshire  hill  district  masses  of  this  nature  are 
relatively  rare,  and  are  generally  deposited  in  rather  narrow  fissures. 
In  that  portion  of  the  Commonwealth  rocks  of  this  description  cannot 


24  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

therefore  be  regarded  as  of  value  for  the  purpose  we  are  considering. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  River,  from  Greenfield  southward  to 
the  border  of  the  State  and  beyond  that  limit  to  near  the  sea,  trap 
deposits  plentifully  occur,  intermingled  with  the  red  sandstones  and 
conglomerates  of  that  district.  Numerous  great  hills,  of  which 
Mountains  Tom  and  Holyoke  are  the  most  striking  examples,  are  in 
the  main  made  up  of  thick  beds  of  trap.  Many  of  these  localities  are 
admirably  placed  for  access  by  railway  and  common  road  ;  in  time  the 
crushed  rock  from  these  deposits  will  doubtless  be  made  an  extensive 
matter  of  commerce,  so  that  the  towns  in  the  valley  and  in  the  adjacent 
hill  districts  will  be  able  to  obtain  it  at  low  cost. 

From  the  eastern  border  of  the  Connecticut  valley  as  far  west  as 
Framingham  and  Fitchburg  trap  rocks  are  again  rather  rare,  and  the 
localities  not  well  known.  East  of  a  line  drawn  between  these  two 
towns  to  the  sea  border,  and  south  to  a  line  drawn  from  Attleborough 
to  Hingham,  there  are  many  hundreds  if  not  thousands  of  these  trap 
dikes,  many  of  them  known  to  be  sufficiently  large  and  well  placed  to 
have  a  value  for  road  material.  In  this  part  of  the  State,  however, 
the  rocks  of  this  general  nature  are  more  varied  in  their  quality  than 
elsewhere  ;  a  considerable  portion  of  them  are  not  well  suited  for 
roadway  use. 

About  two  miles  south  of  the  southern  border  of  Massachusetts,  in 
the  town  of  Cumberland,  R.  I  ,  in  a  position  which  could  be  made 
convenient  of  access  by  railway  to  eastern  and  southern  Massachu- 
setts, there  exists  in  what  is  known  as  Iron  Hill  a  very  great  mass  of 
magnetite  of  black  magnetic  oxide  of  iron,  which,  owing  to  certain 
impurities,  is  not  well  suited  for  the  smelter's  use.  This  deposit 
apparently  affords  a  remarkably  good  material  for  use  in  construct- 
ing macadam  roads.  It  is  by  far  the  hardest  rock  known  in  New 
England.  When  broken  the  fragments  are  very  rough  and  strong, 
and,  though  not  as  yet  tried  for  road  material,  may  doubtless  prove 
of  great  value  for  that  use. 

In  a  grade  below  the  trap  rock  we  may  rank  the  numerous  and 
extensive  beds  of  a  silicious  nature,  in  their  original  form  sandstones, 
which  in  their  changed  state  received  the  name  of  quartzites.  Beds 
of  this  description  occur  at  very  many  points  from  the  western  part 
of  the  Berkshire  district  to  the  shores  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  Al- 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  25 

though  hard,  these  materials  are  prevailingly  very  brittle  and  smooth  ; 
they  break  up  in  a  rapid  manner  under  heavy  wheeling,  and  form  a 
fine  sand  much  like  powdered  glass,  and  their  smooth  surfaces  pre- 
vent a  good  bond  ;  though  superior  for  road  use  to  some  of  the  rocks 
hereafter  described,  they  must  be  ranked  relatively  low  in  the  scale 
of  road  materials. 

The  greater  part  of  the  rocks  of  Massachusetts,  particularly  those 
in  the  region  west  of  Worcester,  consist  of  gneiss  and  mica-schists. 
In  these  rocks  we  generally  have  distinct  crystals  of  quartz,  felspar, 
and  hornblende  or  mica,  though  in  the  schists  one  or  more  of  these 
elements  may  be  wanting,  and  in  the  gneiss  the  minerals  are  distrib- 
uted in  a  banded  manner.  All  these  materials  usually  are  either  too 
soft  for  road  making  or  too  brittle  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  the 
wheel  ;  moreover,  the  micaceous  element  causes  the  fragments  to  be 
rather  slippery,  which  quickly  leads  to  the  destruction  of  the  road. 
In  general,  the  gneisses  are  the  least  objectionable  of  these  kinds 
of  rock.  Some  of  the  deposits  of  this  nature  are  tolerably  well  suited 
for  use  on  macadam  roads,  where  the  vehicles  which  pass  over  them 
are  relatively  light. 

The  granites  and  kindred  syenites,  though  not  so  well  suited  for 
use  in  the  ordinary  broken  state  on  our  roadways  as  some  of  the 
other  stones,  generally  serve  well  for  block  pavements.  In  this  form 
the  flat  surface  of  the  stones,  owing  to  the  hardness  of  the  material, 
resists  the  impact  of  the  wheels,  while  the  brittleness,  which  becomes 
so  evident  in  the  ordinarily  broken  stone,  is  not  such  as  to  jeopardize 
the  endurance  of  the  masses.  This  is  one  of  the  many  cases  in  which 
the  roadmaster  finds  that  a  slight  difference  in  the  method  in  which 
particular  materials  are  used  may  bring  about  very  important  varia- 
tion in  the  service  which  they  may  render  his  art. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  Massachusetts,  particularly  in  the  town  of 
Clinton,  some  of  the  ancient  stratified  rocks  have  been  metamor- 
phosed into  hornblende  schists.  Although  the  experiments  in  using 
this  group  of  schists  have  yet  to  be  made,  laboratory  tests  which 
have  been  instituted  in  connection  with  the  department  of  highway 
engineering  in  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  of  Harvard  University 
indicate  a  probable  value  for  this  group  of  materials.  The  rock  is 
prevailingly  very  tough,  and,  although  rather  softand  easily  ground 


1TIVE: 


26  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

by  tread  of  wheels,  is  likely  on  account  of  its  toughness  to  have  a  fair 
measure  of  endurance. 

The  clay  slates  of  Massachusetts  occur  in  the  main  in  the  region 
near  Boston.  Materials  of  this  description  in  their  original  state 
closely  resembled  ordinary  brick  clays.  By  the  changes  to  which 
they  have  been  subjected  since  their  formation  they  have  been  altered 
as  regards  their  hardness ;  they  sometimes  indeed  have  a  very  rigid 
character,  as  is  shown  by  hand  tests.  Practical  experience,  however, 
shows  that  in  the  road-bed  rock  of  this  nature  rapidly  grinds  to  the 
state  of  fine  mud,  which  washes  away  with  the  rains,  or  is  blown 
about  in  the  form  of  dust.  Some  of  the  towns  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Boston  have  used  these  slate  rocks  in  an  extensive  way  with  results 
which  are  altogether  unsatisfactory  except  where  the  travel  is  light. 

Although  in  general  the  slate  rocks  are  to  be  condemned  as  sources 
of  road  materials,  some  of  the  beds  of  this  nature,  where  they 
approach  either  the  quartzites  or  the  hornblende  schist,  are  tolerably 
well  adapted  for  the  construction  of  highways.  These  local  modifica- 
tions of  the  slates  so  seldom  occur  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  of  no 
great  importance. 

Last  of  all,  among  the  widely  distributed  bed  rocks  of  Massachu- 
setts we  may  mention  the  deposits  of  crystalline  limestone,  or  marble, 
which  plentifully  occur  in  the  western  part  of  the  Berkshire  range, 
and  sparingly  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  These  limestones  are  pre- 
vailingly unsuited  for  use  on  roads,  for,  while  the  material  binds  well 
together,  its  granular  or  crystalline  structure  causes  it  readily  to 
break  up  under  the  tread  of  the  wheel,  and  the  white,  powdery 
dust  is  offensive  to  the  wayfarers.  On  the  whole,  these  last-men- 
tioned rocks  are  perhaps  less  suited  for  road  making  than  any  other 
of  the  common  materials  of  Massachusetts,  except  the  mica  schists. 

In  many  parts  of  Massachusetts  the  drift  materials  afford  better 
stone  for  use  in  the  crusher  and  for  application  to  roads  than  any  of 
the  bed  rocks.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  fragments  which  have 
survived  the  severe  strains  to  which  they  have  been  subjected  beneath 
the  glacier  are  generally  of  a  nature  to  withstand  the  wearing  which 
the  wheels  inflict  upon  them.  Thus,  where  granites,  syenites  or 
gneisses  are  to  be  taken  for  use  after  breaking  for  road  materials, 
it  is  well  to  choose  the  bits  from  some  pit  the  pebbles  of  which  afford 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  27 

no  evidence  of  decay.  It  is  generally  not  advantageous  to  take  the 
stones  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  for  the  reason  that  they  have 
been  submitted  to  a  considerable  amount  of  atmospheric  decay  ;  at  a 
little  depth  below  the  surface  they  generally  remain  nearly  as  firm  as 
they  were  at  the  close  of  the  ice  time. 

The  principal  inconvenience  arising  from  the  use  of  loose  boulders 
as  a  source  of  rock  which  is  to  serve  as  crushed  stone,  arises  from 
the  fact  that  the  road  material  thus  produced  is  of  very  diverse  hard- 
ness, a  feature  which  is  mainly  due  to  the  difference  in  the  measure  in 
which  the  decay-bringing  forces  have  operated.  It  may  thus  happen 
that  a  roadway  constructed  of  fragments  of  stone  gathered  from  fields 
will  prove  incoherent,  occasional  pits  quickly  forming  on  its  surface, 
where  the  softer  stone  wears  away.  Owing  to  this  prevalence  of 
decay  in  the  superficial  materials,  it  has  often  been  found  advan- 
tageous, where  possible,  to  use  ledge  rather  than  surface  stone.  This 
is  to  be  regretted,  for  the  reason  that  many  of  our  farmers  whose 
places  are  near  to  crushers  find  a  profit  in  selling  this  otherwise 
worthless  stone  to  the  roadmasters,  or  to  proprietors  of  private 
crushing  establishments.  As  this  use  of  crushed  stone  becomes  more 
general  on  main  highways  of  fairly  light  travel,  there  is  reason  to 
expect  that  the  revenue  of  our  farmers,  which  already  from  this 
source  amounts  to  several  thousand  dollars  a  year,  may  bei  con- 
siderably increased. 

With  very  little  practice  an  observant  person  can  at  a  glance  tell  a 
poor  boulder  from  one  which  is  fit  for  use.  The  decayed  fragment  is 
generally  rough-surfaced  and  often  fissured,  while  that  which  is  solid 
has  a  smooth  and  often  a  polished  look. 

In  general,  the  pebbles  and  boulders  accumulated  in  deposits  which 
are  without  admixture  of  clay,  and  which  have  been  deposited  by  the 
streams  which  flowed  beneath  the  ice,  are  much  harder  than  those 
which  arc  found  in  the  till  or  general  coating  of  waste,  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  clay,  sand  and  fragments  of  rock,  which  is  so  widely 
distributed  in  all  countries  which  were  covered  by  ice  in  thd  glacial 
epoch.  These  under-ice  streams  were  evidently  furious  torrents, 
which  drove  the  pebbles  and  boulders  violently  on  their  way,  and 
thus  wore  out  all  the  softer  material ;  even  the  harder  masses  have 


28  IMPKOVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

been,  as  we  may  see,  greatly  rounded  by  the  rude  treatment  to  which 
they  have  been  subjected. 

In  some  cases,  perhaps  we  may  say  generally  within  the  limits  of 
Massachusetts,  the  eskers  or  Indian  ridges  yield  the  best  boulders  for 
use  in  the  crusher,  though  in  some  of  the  gravelly  plains  excellent 
material  for  this  purpose  may  be  found.  In  the  south-eastern  portion 
of  the  State,  where  road  materials  of  good  quality  are  of  relatively 
rare  occurrence,  deposits  of  the  above-named  class  have  great  value 
to  the  highway  engineer. 

There  are  a  number  of  materials  of  less  general  importance  than 
those  above  mentioned,  which  may  prove  serviceable  for  particular 
uses  in  road  making,  and  which  deserve  the  attention  of  those  who 
have  highways  in  their  charge.  Only  a  few  of  them  need  be  men- 
tioned in  a  general  report  of  this  nature,  though  all  of  them  may  well 
receive  a  careful  study  in  case  a  thorough-going  examination  of  the 
road  materials  of  the  Commonwealth  is  undertaken.  First  among 
these  very  local  deposits  we  may  note  the  accumulations  of  iron  ore 
which  have  been  formed  beneath  many  of  the  bogs  in  New  England, 
and  which  are  particularly  abundant  in  Massachusetts.  These  bog 
iron  ores,  varying  in  thickness  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet, 
occur  at  the  bottom  of  a  peaty  layer  in  nearly  all  of  the  fresh-water 
swamps  of  eastern  Massachusetts.  They  are  particularly  abundant 
in  the  southern  part  of  Middlesex  and  in  Bristol  and  Plymouth 
counties.  They  also  occur,  though  less  generally,  in  other  parts  of 
the  Commonwealth.  Here  and  there,  especially  in  Plymouth  County, 
some  small  experiments  have  been  made  in  using  this  ore  as  top 
coating  on  sand  roads.  The  results  attained  appear  to  be  valuable, 
and  to  give  promise  that,  with  proper  exploration,  important  additions 
to  the  road  materials  of  the  Commonwealth  may  be  won  from  this 
source  of  supply. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  bog  ores  that  the  iron  oxide  which  they 
contain,  together  with  the  manganese  which  often  occurs  plentifully 
mingled  with  them,  tends  to  bind  the  sand  and  pebbles  together  in  the 
manner  of  a  cement,  giving  the  way  a  considerable  firmness  in  all 
seasons.  In  many  cases  where  bogs  are  drained  for  tillage  purposes 
the  iron  ore  is  left  as  an  incumbrance  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  ; 
at  times,  indeed,  it  renders  the  soil  unfit  for  cultivation,  so  that  it 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  29 

would  be  a  gain  to  the  farmer  to  have  the  material  removed.  Under 
such  conditions  the  cost  of  obtaining  the  ore  would  be  not  much 
greater  than  that  of  procuring  sand  or  gravel,  though  the  masses 
need  to  be  broken  by  the  hammer  or  crusher  before  they  are  fit  for  use 
on  the  road.  A  careful  search  for  these  sources  of  iron  ores  should 
soon  be  undertaken  in  all  the  sandy  districts  of  the  State.  A  few 
such  deposits  in  Bristol  County  are  known  to  the  people,  for  the 
reason  that  in  the  last  century,  and  even  in  a  yet  earlier  time,  small 
amounts  of  iron  were  manufactured  from  these  sources  of  supply. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  Massachusetts,  particularly  in  Middlesex 
and  Bristol  counties,  there  are  considerable  deposits  of  u  pudding 
stones,"  or,  as  they  are  termed  by  geologists,  conglomerates,  which 
have  a  certain  amount  of  value  as  sources  of  road  material.  These 
deposits  are  in  their  general  character  much  like  the  glacial  drift, 
they  are  probably  in  certain  cases  indeed  the  product  of  ancient  ice 
action;  but  they  differ  from  our  superficial  gravels  in  that  by  the 
agents  of  change  they  have  been  converted  into  a  firm  rock,  having 
the  texture  which  is  common  in  the  ancient  deposits. 

The  pudding  stones  in  the  Boston  basin  have  their  pebbles  mostly 
composed  of  original  hard  rocks,  and,  as  far  as  these  fragments  are 
concerned,  afford  excellent  material  for  the  crusher.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  material  which  lies  between  the  pebbles  was 
originally  sand,  and  though  now  the  grains  are  rather  firmly  united, 
they  break  up  when  the  rock  is  reduced  to  fragments,  and  form  a 
powder  which  is  not  of  service  in  the  construction  of  roads,  as  it  does 
not  bind  together  under  the  action  of  the  roller. 

The  pudding  stones  of  Bristol  County  and  the  neighboring  portions 
of  Norfolk  are  on  the  whole  less  suited  to  road  making  than  those 
which  lie  near  Boston  harbor.  The  pebbles  are  prevailingly  less 
hard,  and  the  quantity  of  sand  produced  in  crushing  is  greater  than 
in  the  case  of  the  similar  rock  from  Brookline  and  Roxbury.  Many 
of  these  deposits,  however,  are  somewhat  ferruginous ;  the  iron 
which  they  contain  helps  the  material  to  bind,  and  the  result  is  that 
a  road-bed  of  tolerable  strength  can  be  made  of  the  crushed  stone. 

The  pebbles  and  all  the  conglomerates  of  Massachusetts,  like  those 
from  the  washed  gravels  from  the  glacial  beds,  are  characteristically 
very  smooth  ;  if  the  crushed  action  is  not  carried  to  the  point  where 


30  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS1. 

these  fragments  are  broken,  they  are  certain  under  the  tread  of 
wheels  to  become  separated  from  the  sandstone  which  envelops 
them,  and  to  become  mere  rolling  stones  in  the  roadway.  On  this 
account,  where  conglomerates  are  used  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
crushing  process  carried  to  the  point  where  the  material  is  produced 
'in  smaller  bits  than  would  otherwise  be  desirable. 

At  many  points  in  the  State  certain  of  the  crystalline  rocks  have 
been  subjected  to  a  considerable  amount  of  decay ;  they  have,  in 
fact,  passed  into  the  condition  of  a  coarse  sand,  which  is  often  so 
incoherent  that  it  can  be  excavated  with  the  pick  and  shovel.  Where 
this  decomposition  has  affected  certain  traps  and  granitic  rocks, 
material  thus  produced  is  generally  well  suited  for  roadways,  pro- 
vided they  are  to  be  travelled  only  by  light  vehicles.  Owing  to  the 
considerable  amount  of  iron  this  decayed  rock  generally  contains,  it 
binds  well  together,  and  can  be  used  to.  advantage  on  foot  ways  and 
private  carriage  roads. 

In  the  town  of  Stoughton  a  decayed  rock  of  a  general  granitic 
character  occurs  in  considerable  quantities,  and  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  a  slight  practical  test.  Experience  seems  to  show  that 
the  material  binds  well  together,  forming  a  tolerably  firm  road-bed, 

the  only  disadvantage  being  that  in  the  spring-time  the  surface  to 

0 
the  depth  of  an  inch  or  two  becomes  softened,  forming  pasty  mud. 

At  Steep  Brook  station,  immediately  north  of  Fall  River,  there  is 
a  similar  deposit  of  decayed  granite,  which  is  now  extensively  quar- 
ried for  use  as  coarse  fire  clay.  This  material,  which  belongs  to  the 
coal  measures  of  Massachusetts,  was  in  that  age  of  the  earth's  his- 
tory a  decayed  rock,  which  was  swept  about  by  the  waves  and 
streams,  afterwards  consolidated  into  a  firm  bed,  and  yet  later  sub- 
jected to  another  process  of  decay,  which  has  again  reduced  it  to  a 
soft  state.  Although  no  extended  experiment  has  been  made  in  the 
use  of  this  Steep  Brook  fire  clay  on  roads,  it  may  be  found  service- 
able when  used  in  the  manner  of  a  cement  to  bind  gravels  together. 

Along  the  coast,  particularly  on  the  mud  flats  of  the  harbors  lying 
to  the  north  of  Cape  Cod,  thick  deposits  of  oyster  shells  abound. 
These  beds  are  generally  not  shown  at  the  surface,  for  the  reason 
that  the  species  of  oyster  which  plentifully  existed  in  this  region 
down  to  the  settlement  of  the  country  by  Europeans  has  ceased  to 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  31 

abound  in  these  waters ;  thus  recent  accumulations  of  clay  com- 
monly hide  the  old  oyster  beds  from  view.  At  some  points,  notably 
in  the  Charles  River  basin,  dredging  has  shown  these  shell  beds  to 
have  a  depth  of  several  feet.  By  the  dredge  it  is  possible  to  lift 
these  shells  at  a  very  moderate  cost ;  it  will  probably  be  found  profit- 
able at  certain  points  to  use  this  material  on  private  roads,  and  other 
ways  which  are  traversed  only  by  light  carriages.  The  shells  thus 
obtained  would  not  be  quite  as  good  for  road  material  as  those  which 
are  now  obtained  in  the  living  state,  and  this  for  the  reason  that  a 
portion  of  the  organic  matter  has  been  removed,  with  the  result  that 
the  limy  matter  is  more  fragile  than  it  originally  was. 

In  considering  the  general  conditions  of  Massachusetts  roads,  it  is 
necessary  to  take  into  account  the  amount  of  frost  action  to  which 
they  are  subjected.  In  this  portion  of  New  England  the  injury  done 
by  freezing  is  considerably  greater  in  amount  than  it  is  in  the  more 
northern  and  inland  portions  of  the  country.  Where  the  winter  is  en- 
during, the  ground  is  usually  subjected  but  once  to  the  deep  penetra- 
tion of  frost ;  the  surface  is  then  snow-bound,  and  so  remains  until  the 
spring-time,  and  the  covering  often  goes  away  so  slowly  that  the  late 
frosts  do  not  penetrate  to  any  considerable  depth.  It  is  otherwise  in 
south-eastern  New  England.  In  this  region  it  is  common  for  the 
ground  -to  freeze  to  a  depth  of  six  inches  or  more  at  least  half  a  dozen 
times  each  year,  the  freezing  on  each  occasion  going  to  a  point  where 
the  artificial  construction  of  a  road-bed  is  affected  to  its  base. 

Where  the  ground  is  left  bare  of  snow,  and  where  it  is  firmly  con- 
solidated, as  on  a  roadway,  the  frost  in  Massachusetts,  at  least  in 
the  region  about  Boston,  occasionally  enters  the  ground  to  a  depth 
of  four  feet  or  more.  In  this  process  the  whole  of  this  earth  section 
so  far  as  it  contains  water  is  necessarily  set  in  motion,  the  amount  of 
movement  being  determined  by  the  quantity  of  the  fluid  which  it  con- 
tains. In  passing  into  the  frozen  state,  water  expands  to  the  amount 
of  about  one-ninth  of  its  volume  ;  in  so  doing  it  thrusts  the  frag- 
ments of  mineral  matter  about  so  as  to  obtain  the  additional  room. 
It  is  evident  that  this  action  of  the  frost  makes  it  very  desirable 
to  keep  the  foundations  of  a  road  in  the  driest  possible  conditions. 
To  insure  its  safety  it  is  indeed  necessary  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  any  considerable  amount  of  ice  in  the  foot  or  so  of  depth  immedi- 


32  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

ately  under  the  pavement  of  the  roadway.  If  this  part  of  the  section 
is  kept  dry  it  will  provide  a  good  non-conductive  coating  for  the 
lower  earth  in  a  measure  likely  to  prevent  the  downward  penetration 
of  the  frost.  If  the  freezing  cold  passes  through  it,  the  movement 
of  the  lower-lying  materials  will  have  but  little  influence  on  the  solid 
part  of  the  roadway ;  the  effect  will  be  merely  to  lift  it  to  a  level 
sligntly  higher  than  it  was  before  the  frost  entered  the  ground. 

In  all  countries  it  is  very  important  that  the  section  of  the  road-bed 
which  receives  the  stress  of  the  wheels  and  that  which  lies  immedi- 
ately below  the  level  of  the  so-called  metal  should  be  as  dry  as  possi- 
ble, but  in  regions  much  affected  by  frost  the  upper  or  trodden  level 
should  have  all  the  qualities  of  a  roof  of  sound  construction.  It 
should  shed  the  water  to  the  side  drains,  and  these  should  be  so 
placed  that  the  moisture  does  not  work  laterally  under  the  road-bed. 
In  general,  such  conditions  can  only  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  mate- 
rials which  form  a  solid  pavement. 

"With  the  conveniently  located  trap  dikes  of  eastern  Massachusetts 
and  the  Connecticut  River  valley,  it  will  be  easy  to  supply  any  part  of 
the  State  with  good  road  materials  at  a  reasonable  price.  The  rail- 
ways can  be  used  to  advantage,  and  by  their  aid  stone  can  be  delivered 
easily  to  points  a  hundred  or  more  miles  distant  from  the  crusher. 
Private  capital  will  furnish  the  plants  necessary  to  prepare  the  stone 
on  a  large  scale,  and  at  a  price  which  will  probably  be  less  than  the 
Bame  work  can  be  done  by  the  towns. 

The  Need  of  a  Careful  Survey  of  Road  Materials. 
The  foregoing  account  of  the  road  materials  of  Massachusetts  will 
give  the  reader  but  an  imperfect  notion  of  the  exceeding  variety  of 
their  character,  conditions  of  occurrence  and  distribution.  In  no 
other  equal  area  in  this  country  is  the  diversity  of  the  bed-rock  con- 
ditions so  far  as  they  pertain  to  road  making  so  great  as  in  this 
Commonwealth.  The  original  deposits  were  exceedingly  diverse ; 
their  beds  have  been  in  most  cases  greatly  altered,  the  changes 
having  taken  place  in  a  varied  way  in  different  localities,  and  having 
been  accompanied  by  the  formation  of  many  thousand  trap  dikes. 
The  glacial  deposits,  though  more  uniform,  exhibit  considerable 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  33 

diversities  which  have  ulso  to  be  taken  into  account  by  the  careful 
road  builder. 

To  put  the  roadmasters  of  the  State  in  possession  of  the  knowl- 
edge required  in  their  difficult  tasks,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  a 
somewhat  careful  study  of  the  bed  rocks,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
their  fitness  for  the  construction  of  highways,  and  to  delineate  the 
results  on  appropriate  maps,  to  be  accompanied  by  the  necessary 
descriptions.  The  information  thus  obtained  should  be  so  presented 
that  the  supervisors  of  highways  in  each  town  may  know  the  relative 
value  of  all  the  resources  in  the  way  of  construction  materials  which 
they  can  command.  The  cost  of  such  an  examination  and  descrip- 
tion would  probably  not  exceed  the  expense  now  incurred  in  con- 
structing ten  miles  of  ordinary  good  highway,  and  the  saving  which 
would  be  effected  in  any  one  year  would  probably  repay  many  fold 
the  expense  of  the  inquiry. 


34  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


CHAPTER    III. 
CONDITION  OF  MASSACHUSETTS  ROADS. 

The  time  allowed  for  the  preparation  of  this  report  has  not  been 
sufficient  to  enable  the  commissioners  to  do  all  which  should  have 
been  done  in  the  way  of  obtaining  information  as  to  the  condition  of 
the  highways  in  the  Commonwealth.  In  their  effort  to  attain  the  end 
in  view  they  proceeded  in  the  manner  described  below. 

Immediately  after  their  appointment,  the  commissioners  sent  tabu- 
lated questions  to  the  selectmen  and  road  commissioners  of  the  sev- 
eral towns.  The  results  thus  obtained,  though  valuable,  were  evi- 
dently insufficient  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  inquiry. 

As  soon  as  it  became  evident  that  no  thoroughly  satisfactory  infor- 
mation could  be  obtained  by  correspondence,  the  commissioners 
undertook  a  system  of  hearings,  which  were  held  after  due  advertise- 
ments in  the  shire  towns  and  at  other  points  designated  by  the  county 
commissioners.  Twelve  such  hearings  were  held,  which  were  attended 
by  representatives  of  thirty-six  per  cent,  of  the  towns.  The  record 
of  information  thus  obtained  through  the  services  of  a  stenographer, 
and  which  is  herewith  submitted,  covers  many  hundred  pages  of 
manuscript,  and  contains  a  very  valuable  body  of  evidence  concern- 
ing the  condition  of  our  roadways  and  the  state  of  mind  of  the  citi- 
zens of  the  Commonwealth;  it  also  sets  forth  in  a  clear  way  the 
methods  by  which  the  highways  of  the  State  are  now  controlled. 

In  addition  to  the  methods  of  inquiry  above  set  forth,  your  com- 
missioners deemed  it  important  to  obtain  a  photographic  record  which 
should  present  in  a  most  unquestionable  way  the  actual  state  of  the 
principal  thoroughfares  in  various  parts  of  the  Commonwealth.  To 
obtain  this  end,  Mr.  C.  L.  Weeks,  an  agent  of  the  Board,  traversed 
six  hundred  miles  of  highways,  including  portions  of  every  county  of 
the  Commonwealth,  except  Nantucket.  The  general  results  thus 
obtained  are  set  forth  in  the  report  which  is  submitted  for  publica- 
tion. The  photographs  themselves  are  held  in  two  large  folios 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  35 

which  accompany  this  report ;  these  folios  contain  in  all  four  hundred 
photographs. 

The  system  of  local  government  which  has  proved  in  so  many  ways 
advantageous  to  the  interests  of  the  Commonwealth  apparently  makes 
it  necessary  that  the  actual  wo'-':  of  constructing  the  highways  shall 
be  in  the  hands  of  municipal  officers,  the  agents  of  the  cities  and 
towns.  These  officers  who  have  charge  of  the  highways  have  at 
present  no  other  sources  of  information  as  to  their  art  save  that 
which  may  be  traditional  in  the  locality.  It  seems  impossible  to 
make  any  adequate  provision  whereby  they  may  be  enabled  to  study 
the  better  methods  which  are  followed  in  certain  districts ;  they  are 
thus  unable  to  make  use  of  the  great  and  valuable  body  of  experience 
gained  in  this  Commonwealth,  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  or 
in  foreign  countries. 

The  yet  further  difficulty  with  our  system  arises  from  the  fact  that 
in  most  of  our  towns  and  cities  the  tenure  of  office  of  the  roadmasters 
is  short.  It  is  rare  indeed  that  a  man  is  able  to  look  forward  to  a 
career  in  this  employment,  and  can  therefore  properly  take  the  pains 
or  have  the  opportunities  to  train  himself  in  the  work  he  has  to  do. 
In  a  greater  number  of  cases  he  knows  that  the  customs  of  the  locality 
will  prevent  his  holding  the  place  for  any  number  of  years.  If  this 
method  had  been  devised  to  secure  the  perpetuation  of  bad  roads,  it 
could  not  have  been  more  effectively  adapted  to  the  end. 

It  is  difficult,  except  through  the  general  manuscript  matter  which 
gives  the  records  of  the  hearings  and  the  reports  of  the  town  officers, 
to  set  before  the  Legislature  in  an  adequate  way  the  actual  state  of 
the  highways  of  the  Commonwealth.  In  this  report,  which  is  intended 
for  printing,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  an  account  of  the  matter  in 
very  general  terms,  referring  to  the  manuscript  statements  for  the 
more  detailed  evidence. 

Excepting  in  a  few  of  the  cities  and  in  a  small  number  of  the 
wealthier  towns,  the  highways  of  the  Commonwealth  may  properly 
be  said  to  be  in  bad  condition. 

Iii  part,  this  unsatisfactory  state  of  the  public  roads  in  the  Com- 
monwealth needs  to  be  attributed  to  the  defective  ways  of  construc- 
tion, and  a  lack  of  knowledge  as  to  the  proper  means  of 
administering  the  appropriation  for  that  work  and  for  repairs.  In  a 


36  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

larger  share,  however,  the  evils  arise  from  the  relatively  small 
amount  of  money  which  is  devoted  or  perhaps  can  properly  be  given 
by  the  municipalities  to  the  use  of  the  highways. 

The  appended  Table  K  shows  the  amount  of  money  spent  on 
highways  by  the  towns  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  statistics 
given  in  Tables  O  and  P  afford  further  information  on  this  point. 
From  these  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  73  towns,  or  19.7  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  number  in  the  State,  expend  $1,000  or  less,  with  a  total 
expenditure  of  $41,493.  The  total  mileage  of  roads  in  these  poorer 
towns  above  referred  to  is  2,552  miles.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
average  amount  appropriable  to  their  roads  is  only  $16.20  per  mile,  a 
sum  which  experience  shows  is  quite  inadequate  for  the  work. 

Next  above  the  group  of  towns  just  mentioned  we  have  a  some- 
what richer  association,  including  85  towns,  or  26.6  per  cent,  of  the 
total,  where  the  amount  expended  on  the  roads  ranges  from  one  to 
two  thousand  dollars  annually,  and  the  total  sum  spent  $118,748,  the 
amount  per  mile  being  on  the  average  $28.80. 

Yet  higher  in  the  series  we  have  the  municipalities,  amounting  in 
all  to  56,  where  the  amount  of  money  expended  ranges  from  two  to 
three  thousand  dollars,  and  the  total  sum  amounts  to  $133,027,  an 
average  per  mile  of  road  of  $38.20. 

In  the  three  grades  just  mentioned  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  the 
conditions  are  such  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  the  towns  to  better 
their  condition ;  that  is,  the  best  which  they  can  do  is  to  struggle 
against  further  depreciation  in  the  condition  of  the  highways,  and  to 
make  them  safe  under  a  liberal  interpretation  of  the  law. 

Next  higher  in  the  scale  of  expenditure  comes  the  group  of  towns, 
38  in  number,  where  the  annual  outlay  is  from  three  to  four  thou- 
sand dollars,  with  a  total  expenditure  of  $94,838.  In  the  case  of 
some  of  these  towns  it  may  be  possible  to  make  a  little  progress  in 
the  direction  of  substantial  improvements,  but  it  seems  safest  to 
include  all  these  in  the  group  of  municipalities  the  roads  of  which 
cannot  be  improved  from  within. 

The  list  above  given  includes  232  towns,  or  72.5  per  cent,  out  of 
the  total  number  in  the  Commonwealth,  and  81.1  per  cent,  of  the 
total  areas  occupied  by  them. 

There  are  21  towns  in  the  Commonwealth  which  spend  between 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  37 

.four  and  five  thousand  dollars  per  annum,  or  a  total  of  $96,344,  an 
average  of  SI 01. 20  per  mile  of  roadway.  On  this  grade  of  expendi- 
ture, and  of  course  for  all  the  groups  where  the  appropriation  is  on  a 
larger  scale,  it  seems  clear  that  we  may  fairly  expect  under  a  proper 
system  of  management  to  secure  a  progressive  improvement  in  the 
condition  of  the  highways.  In  other  words,  at  this  point  we  may  in 
general  reckon  that  we  pass  from  the  group  of  towns  needing  aid  to 
those  which  may  be  expected  to  improve  their  condition  from  their 
own  revenues.  It  should  be  understood  that  this  is  a  general  state- 
ment, which  is  open  to  a  certain  amount  of  qualification.  Owing  to 
peculiarities  in  their  conditions,  some  of  the  towns  in  the  lower 
group  as  above  described  may  be  in  condition  to  help  themselves ; 
•and,  on  the  other  hand,  certain  of  the  municipalities  included  in  the 
upper  group  may  need  assistance. 

The  first  question  which  arises  is  whether  it  is  possible  that  the 
towns  in  general,  particularly  of  the  lower  group,  can  reasonably  be 
expected  to  increase  the  burden  of  taxation  for  the  purpose  of  better- 
ing the  roads,  or  devote  a  larger  share  of  that  now  levied  to  the 
improvement  of  their  highways.  The  first  of  these  questions  is  one 
of  exceeding  complication,  and  cannot  be  to  any  extent  discussed  by 
the  commission.  It  may,  however,  be  noted  that  the  percentage  of 
money  annually  appropriated,  to  highways,  as  compared  with  the 
total  valuation,  varies  very  greatly.  The  proportion  of  expenditure 
in  the  ratio  of  valuation  is  given  for  the  several  counties  in  Table  L. 
The  details  for  each  town  are  given  in  Table  K.  From  the  statis- 
tics it  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  variation  is  very  wide,  rang- 
ing from  zero  in  Gay  Head  and  Gosnold  to  six-tenths  of  one  per 
cent,  in  Becket,  It  may  be  said  that  these  differences  are,  to  a 
great  extent,  determined  by  the  particular  conditions  of  the  towns, 
the  amount  of  debt  and  the  relative  improvement  of  the  highways  to 
the  population.  Thus,  in  case  of  Gay  Head,  the  people  are  but  little 
dependent  upon  the  roads,  and  their  main  highway  was  recently  con- 
structed for  them  by  the  Commonwealth  ;  while  in  the  town  of  Becket 
the  local  conditions  are  such  as  to  demand  passable  roads,  and 
require  much  expenditure  for  their  maintenance. 

Another  point  of  interest  in  this  connection  is  the  per  cent,  of  the 
tax  receipts  spent  upon  the  highways.  The  average  of  13.7  per  cent. 


38  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

in  the  towns  is  approximately  the  same  as  that  expended  by  the  cities 
(11.2).  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  there  is  a  general  consensus 
of  opinion  to  the  effect  that  about  a  tithe  of  municipal  revenues  should 
be  devoted  to  roadways.  The  facts  seem  also  to  indicate  that  it  is 
likely  to  be  difficult  to  change  this  proportion  except  by  some  gradual 
alteration  of  public  opinion. 

It  seems  out  of  the  question  to  expect  by  the  progress  of  public 
opinion  to  induce  the  towns  of  the  Commonwealth  to  effect  any 
great  change  in  their  road  conditions  through  a  material  increase  in 
taxes.  Any  such  change,  if  it  is  to  be  brought  about,  must  be 
attained  by  general  enactments,  or,  in  other  words,  by  some  method 
of  State  aid,  in  which  the  richer  parts  of  the  Commonwealth  will 
contribute  to  the  needs  of  the  poorer. 

The  unhappy  conditions  of  our  public  ways  in  the  greater  part  of 
the  Commonwealth  are  not  due  to  any  lack  of  interest  or  of  zeal 
on  the  part  of  the  roadmasters,  but  are  to  be  accounted  for  in  part 
by  the  want  of  expert  knowledge  concerning  road  construction,  and 
in  the  larger  part  by  the  insufficiency  of  money  which  is  at  their  dis- 
posal for  the  execution  of  their  tasks.  If  these  masters  had  been  called 
upon  for  many  years  past  to  construct  good  roads,  their  native 
ingenuity  would  doubtless,  though  perhaps  by  way  of  many  blunders, 
have  led  them  to  good  results. 


Physical  Conditions  of  Massachusetts  Highways. 
The  most  important  defects  in  the  physical  conditions  of  the 
Massachusetts  roads  arise  from  an  inadequate  expenditure  of  money 
in  the  first  construction  of  the  way.  In  most  cases  the  paths  followed 
by  vehicles  are  not  now,  and  never  have  been,  in  a  condition  to  meet 
the  tax  of  travel.  This  statement  is  true  not  only  of  the  by-ways  of 
the  towns  where  no  effective  work  whatever  has  been  done  upon  the 
road,  but  also  of  many  of  the  more  costly  ways  in  the  State.  Thus, 
in  the  case  of  the  Salem  Turnpike,  which  was  built  with  a  view  to 
bring  profit  to  a  corporation,  and  constructed  at  considerable  expense, 
the  work  was  never  done  in  a  workmanlike  manner,  with  the  result 
that  the  enterprise  which  might  have  been  fairly  remunerative  proved 
entirely  unprofitable  to  the  shareholders. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  39 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  rural  highways  of  Massachusetts 
are  fairly  passable  in  the  part  of  the  year  beginning  with  the  15th  of. 
May  and  closing  with  the  1st  of  January,  with  the  exception  of  the 
relatively  small  amount  of  the  mileage  where  the  ways  are  traversed 
by  very  heavy  wagons.  Such  roads,  many  of  them  of  the  greatest 
economic  importance  to  the  Commonwealth,  are  often  bad  during 
every  day  in  the  year.  This  fact  is  shown  by  many  of  the  photo- 
graphs, all  of  which  were  taken  in  the  most  favorable  period  of  the 
year,  —  the  early  autumn.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  at  least  four-fifths, 
probably  nine-tenths,  of  the  highways  of  the  Commonwealth  which 
are  intimately  related  to  its  manufacturing  industries  are  in  perma- 
nently bad  condition. 

Of  the  six  hundred  miles  of  the  roadway  on  which  the  photographs 
were  taken,  at  approximately  regular  intervals  of  about  one  mile,  at 
least  five  hundred  and  sixty  miles  were  clearly  in  bad  condition  in  the 
most  favorable  part  of  the  year.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that 
the  roads  photographed  are,  from  their  position,  among  the  better  of 
those  in  the  Commonwealth,  and  include  a  certain  amount  of  city 
streets.  The  greater  part  of  those  which  were  photographed,  more 
than  nine-tenths  of  the  whole,  consist  of  old  stage  routes,  which 
represent,  in  a  way,  the  result  of  the  road-building  energy  of  our 
population  for  two  centuries  or  more  of  their  history. 

The  tax  inflicted  upon  our  people  by  the  condition  of  the  roads 
cannot  be  estimated  with  any  accuracy.  There  are,  however,  certain 
indications  which  give  a  basis  for  a  general  reckoning,  not  without 
its  value  to  the  public. 

One  of  the  methods  of  approaching  the  question  may  be  set  forth 
as  follows:  the  total  movement  of  freight  by  railroads  in  the  Com- 
monwealth amounts  annually,  according  to  the  report  of  the  Railroad 
Commissioners  for  the  year  1890,  to  27,900,000  tons;  of  this,  two-, 
thirds  pertain  to  the  cities  and  one-third  to  what  we  may  term  the 
rural  districts.  Estimating  that  the  freight  which  enters  or  leaves  the 
rural  districts  is  subjected  to  an  average  highway  carriage  of  four 
miles,  we  find  37,259,336  tons  of  freight  hauled  one  mile  per  annum 
as  the  highway  part  of  the  business.  Reckoning  the  difference  in 
the  cost  of  transportation  over  the  road  of  the  first  class  and  that 
which  represents  the  average  condition  of  Massachusetts  highways,  it 


40  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

becomes  evident  that  the  tax  due  to  the  imperfections  of  these  ways 
amounts  to  between  three  and  four  million  dollars  a  year. 

It  may  be  objected  to  this  computation  that  the  reckoning  of  four 
miles  as  the  average  journey  of  rural  freight  in  ordinary  wagons  is 
excessive ;  in  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  a  very  large 
part  of  the  freight  which  passes  over  our  highways  never  enters  a 
railroad  carriage.  Furthermore,  the  study  of  four  out  of  the  eight 
main  highways  connecting  Boston  with  the  surrounding  country  has 
shown  that  these  roads  give  passage  to  about  8,000,000  mile  tons  of 
freight  per  annum  which  does  not  touch  the  railways.  The  proba- 
bilities are  that  the  estimate  as  above  made  much  underrates  both  the 
disadvantages  of  transportation  and  the  amount  of  carriage. 

The  problem  may  be  approached  in  another  way,  —  that  in  which  it 
has  been  essayed  by  various  European  students  upon  the  subject ; 
this  is  as  follows  :  the  statistics  of  Great  Britain  show  that  in  that 
country  on  the  average  one  horse  serves  twenty-four  people  ;  in  Scot- 
land the  proportion  is  one  to  twenty  and  six-tenths ;  in  France  the 
proportion  is  one  to  thirteen  and  four-tenths  ;  and  in  Massachusetts 
the  proportion  is  one  to  twelve  and  three-fourths.  Or,  in  other  words, 
it  requires  about  twice  as  many  horses  to  perform  the  work  allotted 
lo  such  animals  in  Massachusetts  as  it  does  in  Great  Britain.  The 
•proportion  of  pleasure  horses  to  those  devoted  to  economic  purposes 
is  probably  about  the  same  in  these  countries,  and  the  general  condi- 
tions of  the  relation  between  the  country  folk  and  the  cities  are 
•approximately  alike.  It  is  therefore  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
difference  in  the  number  of  horses  is  due  to  the  needs  created  by  vari- 
ation in  the  quality  of  the  highways.  An  extension  of  the  statistics 
to  other  countries  bears  out  this  impression.  Switzerland,  which  is 
probably  the  best  highway ed  country  in  the  world,  has  one  horse  for 
each  twenty-nine  and  six-tenths  people. 

Reckoning  the  cost  of  each  horse  in  wear  and  tear,  care  and  food,  at 
twelve  dollars  a  month,  which  is  probably  at  least  twenty  per  cent, 
below  the  truth,  and  estimating  that  the  ill  condition  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts roads  doubles  the  number  of  horses  employed  within  the 
State,  we  find  that  the  tax  which  these  imperfect  ways  imposes  on 
the  people  of  the  Commonwealth  is  very  large.  It  appears  that,  as 
compared  with  Great  Britain,  we  are  bearing  a  loss  of  about  ten 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGIJWAYS.  41 

million  dollars  a  year ;  if  the  comparison  is  made  with  Switzerland, 
the  same  would  be  twelve  and  one-half  million  dollars  per  annum. 

Some  light  may  be  thrown  upon  this  problem  by  the  facts  relating 
to  particular  highways  which  have  been  gathered  by  the  commission, 
only  a  few  of  which  can  be  set  forth  here.  First,  to  take  the  instance 
of  the  Salem  Turnpike,  a  careful  examination  has  shown  that  the 
present  cost  of  transporting  a  ton  of  freight  from  Revere  to  Boston  is 
about  thirteen  cents  per  mile  ton,  while  on  the  section  of  the  road 
from  Revere  to  Lynn  the  cost  is  twenty-four  cents  per  mile  ton.  As 
the  whole  of  this  road  now  under  consideration  is  practically  without 
grades,  all  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  transportation  is  due  to  the 
variation  in  the  condition  of  the  roadway. 

Carefully  verified  statistics  concerning  the  cost  of  hauling  from  the 
house  formerly  occupied  by  Geo.  A.  Hall,  in  Revere,  to  Boston, 
make  it  clear  that,  in  the  original  unimproved  condition  of  the  road 
during  the  early  part  of  this  century,  the  cost  per  mile  ton  was  sixty 
cents  ;  at  present  the  cost  over  the  well-paved  way  is  about  eighteen 
cents  per  mile  ton. 

An  instance  of  equally  striking  nature  is  represented  by  Plate  A  in 
this  report,  showing  two  roads,  where  in  the  one  case  a  load  of  four 
tons  is  upborne  by  a  good  macadam  road  five  years  in  heavy  use,  and 
in  the  other  a  load  of  six  and  a  quarter  tons  is  supported  in  the  ruts 
of  an  ordinary  country  road.  In  the  lower  figure  the  weight  encoun- 
ters practically  no  resistance  from  the  condition  of  the  road  ;  in  the 
upper,  the  principal  part  of  the  labor  of  hauling  is  brought  about  by 
the  state  of  the  way  itself.  The  cost  of  teaming  in  the  lower  figure 
is  reckoned  about  twenty-one  cents  per  mile  ton,  and  in  the  other 
forty-three  cents  per  mile  ton.  It  is  eminently  probable  that  the 
actual  cost  of  each  of  these  roads  on  an  average  of  ten  years'  use 
does  not  vary  in  any  important  measure,  the  difference  being  that  the 
one  is  well  constructed  and  needs  little  repairs  ;  the  other  was  never 
built,  in  any  proper  sense,  and  is  really  irreparable. 

It  may  also  be  added  that  the  statistics,  as  in  Table  J,  show  that 
the  amount  of  weight  drawn  per  horse  in  different  parts  of  the  Com- 
monwealth varies  in  a  striking  manner  and  evidently  in  proportion  to 
the  condition  of  the  roads  ;  thus,  in  Boston  the  average  weight  of 
coal  drawn  per  horse  is  3,393  pounds,  in  Pittsfield  it  is  2,063  pounds, 


42  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 

in  Northampton  2,375  pounds,  in  Greenfield  2,678  pounds,  in  Hoi- 
yoke  2,133  pounds,  in  North  Adams  1,917  pounds.  The  table  in  gen- 
eral shows  that  the  load  per  horse  in  Boston  is  about  one-third  more 
than  in  the  other  cities  in  which  statistics  were  taken.  It  appears  to 
be  safe  to  reckon  that  the  weight  of  the  load  which  can  be  hauled  by 
one  horse  in  the  rural  districts  in  Massachusetts  is  only  about  half 
that  which  can  be  conveyed  in  the  better-conditioned  cities  and  richer 
towns.  It  takes  twice  as  many  horses  to  do  the  work  as  it  would  if 
the  roads  wrere  in  first-class  condition. 

Although  these  methods  of  attaining  the  result  afford  discrepant 
indications  as  to  the  amount  of  loss  due  to  ill-kept  highways,  they  alike 
clearly  indicate  that  the  direct  loss  is  very  great,  probably  amounts 
to  somewhere  between  five  and  ten  million  dollars  per  annum.  No 
account  is  here  taken  of  the  indirect  damage  which  occurs  through 
the  wearing  out  of  animals,  vehicles  and  harnesses,  which  probably 
amounts  to  a  large  fraction  of  the  sum  above  stated. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  43 


CHAPTER    IV. 
ECONOMICS   OF   MASSACHUSETTS   ROADS. 

The  wealth  and  population  of  our  cities  depends  to  a  great  extent 
on  their  ability  to  manufacture  goods  or  to  exchange  the  various 
commodities  with  the  more  or  less  scattered  communities  of  the 
Commonwealth. 

In  treating  of  these  ways  we  have  divided  them  into  two  classes  :  — 

Class  one  includes  the  distinctively  city  streets  which  are  used 
almost  exclusively  for  the  movement  of  goods  and  of  people  residing 
within  their  own  borders,  and  which  must  be  cared  for  according  to 
the  local  demand  made  upon  them. 

Class  two  consists  of  those  main  thoroughfares  which  in  the  earlier 
times  constituted  the  stage  and  mail  routes,  and  which  to-day  furnish 
the  ways  of  ingress  and  egress  for  the  scattered  villages  throughout 
the  Commonwealth. 

The  needs  in  the  way  of  comfort  and  economy  of  the  people 
constantly  using  the  city  streets  afford  an  effective  guarantee  that 
every  possible  effort  will  be  made  to  secure  able  and  experienced  men 
to  build  and  superintend  them,  and  that  they  will  be  maintained  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  get  the  best  results  ;  in  the  opinion  of  the 
commissioners  they  should  not  be  considered  in  any  scheme  of  State 
work  which  may  be  undertaken,  except  as  to  the  possible  benefit  of 
advice  which  may  be  given  concerning  the  methods  and  value  of 
materials  used,  which  would  naturally  come  from  a  central  board 
whose  inquiries  shall  cover  these  points. 

A  study  of  the  city  streets  of  the  Commonwealth  shows  that  much 
work  of  a  permanent  character  has  been  performed,  and  that  a 
perfected  system  is  gradually  being  evolved.  Boston,  being  the  chief 
city,  may  be  assumed  fairly  to  represent  the  growth  and  present 
condition  of  this  class  of  highway  engineering  in  the  Commonwealth. 

A  study  of  Boston  streets  shows  that  previous  to  1853,  with  the 
exception  of  some  few  ways  paved  with  granite  blocks,  each  six 


44  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

inches  wide,  the  most  of  the  heavy-traffic  streets  were  laid  with  coarse 
cobble  stones  gathered  from  the  fields  or  beaches  near  at  hand. 

The  six-inch  wide  granite  blocks  were  mostly  removed  early  in  the 
fifties,  on  account  of  their  slipperiness  and  inconveniences  arising 
from  their  use  by  heavy  teams.  In  1856  the  superintendent  of  streets 
reported  that  the  round  stones  were,  in  his  opinion,  "the  best, 
cheapest  and  most  durable  for  Boston  streets,"  and  in  1855  this 
recommendation  not  only  applied  to  the  common  cobble-stone  pave- 
ments, but  to  the  "kidney  stones,"  which  were  smaller,  smoother 
and  harder,  and  only  obtained  from  St.  Mary's  Bay,  N.  S.,  and  which 
cost,  laid  on  a  gravel  foundation,  about  $1.00  to  $1.50  a  square  yard. 
In  1865  the  available  supply  of  cobble-stones  was  reported  as  about 
exhausted,  and  the  comment  was  "  that  at  best  it  made  a  rough  road, 
and  few  will  regret  its  discontinuance." 

In  the  mean  time  experiment  had  been  made  with  the  light  and 
heavy  "  Terry  iron  block  "  and  the  "  cellular  iron  block."  The  heavy 
Terry  block  pavement  was  laid  in  Court  Street  at  a  cost  of  $10.00  a 
square  yard ;  for  a  few  years  it  gave  satisfaction,  but  eventually 
went  to  pieces  and  was  replaced  by  granite  blocks. 

The  light  Terry  block  pavement  was  laid  on  Washington  Street 
between  Court  and  School  streets  in  1856,  at  a  cost  of  $6.00  a  square 
yard  ;  but,  owing  to  the  great  vibration  in  the  blocks,  they  would  not 
bind  well,  and  their  gradual  breaking  caused  their  removal  in  1859, 
when  they  were  replaced  by  kidney  stones.  The  u  cellular  iron 
blocks  "  were  experimental  only,  being  laid  by  private  parties  ;  they 
were  removed  in  less  than  two  years.  The  light  Terry  block  was 
fourteen  inches  square  by  four  and  a  half  inches  deep,  weighing 
thirty-one  pounds,  while  the  heavy  block  was  twelve  inches  square  by 
five  and  a  half  inches  deep,  and  weighed  thirty-six  pounds.  The 
cellular  iron  block  was  fourteen  inches  square  by  one  and  two- 
eighths  inches  deep,  and  had  spaces  filled  with  gravel,  the  blocks 
being  laid  in  lime  and  sand. 

From  the  time  the  first  Nicholson  (wooden)  pavement  was  laid  by 
the  city  in  1856,  it  can  hardly  be  claimed  that  it  ever  proved  satis- 
factory. Its  first  cost  was  about  $2.50  a  square  yard,  and  the  cost 
of  repairs  were  so  great  that  it  was  soon  condemned  for  use  on 
heavy-traffic  streets.  Some  of  this  pavement  was  made  of  hard 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  45 

rock  maple  laid  on  burnetized  boards  with  coating  of  tar  on  the 
ground,  but  in  a  year  or  two  the  blocks  were  reported  as  so  worn 
down  as  to  be  fit  only  to  burn.  Later  a  wood  block  known  as  the 
"Warren"  was  tried,  and  another  called  the  "Boston."  The 
"Warren  "  was  laid  without  a  flooring,  on  a  gravel  foundation,  and 
the  "  Boston  "  was  laid  on  a  gravel  bed  not  compacted  but  shaped, 
and  the  blocks  rammed  to  a  solid  bed  after  softening  the  foundation 
by  the  use  of  water  passed  through  the  joints. 

In  1868  it  was  reported  that  wood  pavement  was  "  not  good  to  use 
on  narrow,  heavily  travelled  streets.  In  sections  of  the  city  where 
the  traffic  is  light,  wood  will  no  doubt  be  good  and  prove  satisfac- 
tory." 

In  1862  the  "  Belgian  "  blocks  were  first  used,  costing  about  $2.85 
a  square  yard.  The  blocks  were  of  trap  rock,  about  four  inches 
square  by  seven  inches  deep.  They  were  shipped  from  the  Hudson 
River,  and  gave  great  satisfaction,  being  described  as  very  hard,  and 
showing  but  trifling  wear  after  several  years  of  use,  even  on  heavy- 
traffic  streets.  Their  use  was  in  1865  recommended  on  all  heavy- 
traffic  streets,  while  the  small  granite  block,  three  to  four  inches 
wide,  six  to  seven  inches  long  and  about  seven  inches  deep,  was 
recommended  for  lighter- travelled  streets.  Various  other  kinds  of 
pavements  have  been  tried  in  Boston,  but,  although  they  have  given 
satisfaction  in  other  cities,  their  failure  here  has  caused  their 
removal ;  until  at  the  present  time  the  principal  pavements  in  use  are 
sheet  asphalt  and  granite  blocks,  although  there  are  a  few  streets 
paved  with  brick  or  asphalt  blocks. 

The  granite  blocks  now  used  are  three  and  one-half  to  four  and 
one-half  inches  wide,  eight  to  twelve  inches  long  and  seven  and  one- 
half  to  eight  inches  deep,  and  cost  from  $2.07  on  a  gravel  bed  to 
$5.00  a  square  yard  on  a  concrete  foundation.  On  the  heavier-traffic 
central  streets  the  blocks  are  used  entirely,  and  are  laid  on  a  concrete 
foundation  six  inches  thick,  all  the  joints  between  the  blocks  being 
filled  with  gravel  and  gas  tar  pitch,  making  a  firm  pavement,  and  one 
that  affords  an  effective  roof  over  the  foundation. 

The  sheet  asphalt  which  is  used  is  mostly  "Trinidad,"  although 
two  streets  in  Boston  have  this  year  been  laid  with  the  Sicilian  rock 
asphalt.  All  the  street  asphalt  is  laid  on  a  six-inch  concrete  founda- 


46  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 

tion,  shaped  to  carry  the  water  to  the  catch-basins,  and  rests  on  an 
even  thickness  of  two  and  a  half  inches  of  asphalt.  This  pavement 
is  used  on  light- traffic  and  residential  streets,  where  cleanliness  and 
freedom  from  noise  are  essential  features.  Its  cost  is  about  $2.50  to 
$3.75  a  square  yard,  and  it  requires  regular  cleaning  and  continuous 
repairs. 

Brick  and  asphalt  blocks  are  used  on  light-traffic  streets,  and  then 
only  when  they  can  be  laid  on  a  gravel  foundation,  as  the  use  of  a 
concrete  foundation  adds  so  much  to  the  cost  as  to  put  them  in  the 
same  class  with  sheet  asphalt ;  owing  to  the  tendency  of  these  blocks 
to  chip  at  the  edges  and  more  rapid  wear,  they  are  not  considered  an 
equal  in  value  to  sheet  asphalt  at  the  price  mentioned  above. 

The  experience  of  Boston  has  been  that  pavements  which  have 
endured  well  in  other  places  have  in  certain  instances  proved  a  failure 
here.  It  should  be  observed  that  we  have  made  a  study  of  the  wagons 
in  and  about  Boston  and  in  several  other  cities  in  different  parts  of 
the  State,  and  a  comparison  of  these  observations  shows  that  no  such 
weights  per  horse,  or  per  inch  in  tire,  are  to  be  met  with  in  other  parts 
of  the  Commonwealth  as  are  found  in  Boston.  Whilst  the  best  for- 
eign practice  allows  of  only  five  hundred  to  nine  hundred  pounds  per 
inch  in  width  of  tire,  we  find  here  many  different  types  of  wagons 
loaded  to  one  thousand,  fifteen  hundred,  two  thousand  and  in  cases 
as  high  as  forty-five  hundred  and  fifty-two  hundred  pounds  per  inch 
of  width  of  tire.  This  excessive  weight,  in  connection  with  the 
numerous  street  railway  tracks  and  the  sharp  calks  on  the  horses' 
shoes,  tends  quickly  to  destroy  anything  but  the  hardest  and  toughest 
granite  blocks,  and  to  develop  inequalities  in  the  surface  of  any  kind 
of  pavement  which  is  not  laid  on  the  firmest  of  foundations  We  thus 
see  the  reason  for  gradual  development  of  the  expensive  pavement 
now  used. 

The  pavements  in  other  cities  of  Massachusetts  are  of  much  the 
same  character  as  may  be  found  in  Boston,  except  that  no  other  has 
yet  used  a  concrete  foundation  under  granite  blocks.  Some  of  the 
older  cities,  such  as  Salem,  Gloucester  and  New  Bedford,  have  more 
or  less  cobble-stone  pavement ;  but  these  roadways  belong  to  a  past 
age,  and,  as  fast  as  the  finances  of  the  municipalities  will  permit,  are 
being  replaced  by  granite  blocks. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  47 

Where  no  concrete  foundation  is  used,  the  granite  blocks  are  laid 
on  a  gravel,  cinder  or  broken-stone  foundation,  and  cost  completed 
from  $2.00  to  62.50  a  square  yard.  The  crown  generally  used  is  from 
one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  per  foot  of  width ;  a  gutter  grade  of  at 
least  one-half  foot  to  the  one  hundred  feet  is  required ;  on  streets 
with  "  flat"  grades  the  grade  is  made  by  a  change  in  the  depth  of 
the  gutter  below  the  tops  of  the  curbs,  of  from  five  inches  at  the 
summit  to  twelve  inches  at  the  catch  basins. 

Holyoke  has  laid  a  short  piece  of  one  street  with  asphalt  blocks. 
During  the  present  year  Springfield  has  laid  a  residential  street  with 
Syracuse  bricks  on  edge,  on  a  foundation  of  common  home-made 
hard-burned  brick,  laid  flat  on  a  gravel  foundation,  the  bed  being 
firmly  rolled  with  a  steam  roller.  One  inch  of  sand  is  used  between 
the  two  courses  of  brick,  and  the  joints  of  the  top  course  are  "  run  in" 
with  Portland  cement  grout.  The  bricks  cost  $11.00  a  thousand  at 
Syracuse,  or  $15.00  per  thousand  on  the  cars  at  Springfield.  The 
cost  of  teaming  is  $1.00  per  thousand,  and  the  cost  of  the  completed 
street  about  $2.15  pef  square  yard. 

Class  Two,  or  the  Main  Thoroughfares  Connecting  the  City  and  the 
Surrounding  Country. 

One  of  the  debatable  points  encountered  by  the  commission  which 
has  been  left  undetermined  is  how  far  out  from  the  business  centres 
the  city  type  of  paving  should  be  extended,  or  how  far  into  the  great 
centres  the  broken-stone  highway  may  be  used. 

While  there  might  be  several  rules  for  guidance  in  this  matter,  yet 
we  know  of  but  two  which  commend  themselves  to  attention,  and 
these  are,  first,  as  to  the  kind  of  work  and  the  comparative  cost  in  a 
term  of  years ;  second,  the  method  which  permits  of  the  maximum 
load  and  the  least  interruption,  by  repairs,  to  the  traffic  that  passes 
over  it.  The  first  can  only  be  determined  by  study  of  the  physical 
conditions  or  by  a  careful  study  of  the  traffic.  The  second  must  be 
decided  upon  after  knowing  how  often  the  traffic  must  be  disturbed 
by  repairs. 

The  traffic  observations  on  Salem  Turnpike  offer  a  ready  means  of 
estimating  the  cost  of  repairs  on  a  macadam  road  over  which  passes 
a  fair  amount  of  heavy  travel.  At  Revere  street  in  Revere  observa- 


48  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

tions  were  made  for  three  successive  days  upon  the  passing  teams, 
and  upon  the  character  of  the  vehicles.  There  were  on  the 
average  99  pleasure  carriages,  288  express  wagons  and  107  heavy 
wagons  passing  this  point  each  day ;  this  represents  what  passed 
over  the  country  road  to  Lynn.  In  percentage  the  carriages  con- 
stituted 20.2  per  cent.,  expresses  58.3  per  cent.,  and  other  wagons 
21.5  per  cent,  of  the  total,  showing  that  over  one-half  the  traffic  is 
from  the  express  business. 

There  is  no  occasion  for  teams  to  stand  along  the  sides  of  such  a 
road  as  this,  and  the  width  of  stone  used  need  be  only  sufficient  for 
passing,  or  say  eighteen  feet,  leaving  the  rest  of  the  way  gravelled, 
as  at  present.  The  cost  of  building  a  road  of  broken  stone  twelve 
inches  thick  would  be  ninety-two  cents  a  square  yard,  or  $9,715  a 
mile.  The  repairs  of  such  a  road,  based  on  a  traffic  of  484  teams,  or 
1,089  tons  a  day,  means  the  use,  on  an  average  for  a  term  of  years, 
of  138  cubic  yards  of  broken  trap  rock  a  mile  per  year.  The  cost  of 
the  stone,  including  teaming,  loading,  spreading,  rolling  and  super- 
vision, is  estimated  at  $2.75  per  cubic  yard,  making  the  cost  per  mile 
as  $379.50  per  year.  Based  on  the  above  figures,  the  cost  per  mile 
for  say  twenty  years  will  be  — 

Construction, .         $9,715 

Repairs, 7,590 

Interest,  four  per  cent, 10,808 


$28,113 

The  annual  cost  per  mile  per  year  amounts  to  $1,405.65;  such  a 
method  of  construction  affords  a  good  road  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  same  road,  if  paved  with  granite  blocks,  is  estimated  to  cost 
$2.10  a  square  yard,  or  $23,232  a  mile,  laid  on  a  gravel  foundation. 

It  is  uncertain  whether  the  paving  would  require  relaying  in  a 
term  of  twenty  years  ;  but  the  chances  are  that,  owing  to  one  cause 
and  another,  it  would.  The  cost  of  relaying  granite  blocks  would  be 
about  forty  cents  a  square  yard,  or  two  cents  a  yard  a  year,  if  relaid 
in  twenty  years  ;  or  $211.20  a  mile  a  year,  or  $4,224  a  mile  for  twenty 
years. 

Based  on  the  above  figures,  the  cost  per  mile  for  twenty  years  will 
be  — 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  49 

Construction, $23,232 

Repairs, 4,224 

Interest  on  first  cost  only,  four  per  cent,        .        .        .  18,586 


$46,042 

The  mean  annual  cost  per  mile  per  year  amounts  to  $2,302.10. 

Not  taking  into  account  the  interest,  we  find  the  total  cost  of 
macadam  will  be  $17,305,  or  $865  a  year,  and  of  the  granite  blocks 
$27,456,  or  $1,372  a  year,  per  mile. 

The  distance  from  the  point  of  observation  on  the  road  to  Lynn  is 
about  four  miles,  and  the  saving  in  twenty  years  by  the  use  of 
macadam  over  paving  amounts  to  a  little  over  ten  thousand  dollars. 

A  further  study  of  the  traffic  observations  (see  Appendix  J)  on 
this  road  shows  that  the  number  of  teams  passing  out  or  in,  loaded  or 
unloaded,  does  not  vary  a  great  deal.  That  is  to  say,  of  the  empty 
wagons,  10.35  per  cent,  were  going  out  and  10.18  per  cent,  were  going 
in  ;  and  of  the  loaded  wagons  32.67  per  cent,  were  going  out  and 
46/80  per  cent,  were  going  in  ;  of  the  combined  empty  and  loaded 
wagons,  43.02  per  cent,  were  going  out  and  56.98  per  cent,  were 
going  in.  This  close  agreement  shows  that  what  little  difference  there 
is  is  in  favor  of  the  loaded  teams  going  towards  Boston  ;  but  it  is  so 
slight  that  each  end  of  the  road  should  be  capable  of  giving  equally 
good  facilities  for  hauling  the  maximum  load  per  horse.  This 
introduces  the  question  of  the  cost  of  teaming  goods  over  any  high- 
way per  ton  per  mile.  From  a  study  of  the  work  done  by  teams 
over  this  same  road  we  can  form  some  estimate  of  this  quantity. 

The  cost  of  teaming  freight  from  Chelsea  to  Lynn,  where  two- 
thirds  of  the  haul  is  made  over  a  badly  maintained  gravel  road,  is  esti- 
mated to  be  about  twenty-five  cents  a  ton  per  mile,  while  the  cost  of 
teaming  from  the  point  of  observation  to  Boston,  over  a  paved  road 
all  the  way,  is  about  thirteen  to  fourteen  cents  a  ton  a  mile,  showing 
that  the  work  can  be  done  on  the  paved  road  at  a  saving  of  from 
eleven  to  twelve  cents  a  ton  a  mile  over  what  it  actually  costs  over 
the  unpaved  road  in  poor  condition.  From  experiments  made  by 
French  engineers,  it  is  estimated  that  a  horse  will  perform  about 
seventy-seven  per  cent,  as  much  work  on  a  good  and  well-kept 
macadam  road  as  on  a  paved  surface  ;  which  makes  the  saving  on 


50  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

the  paved  road  about  eight  and  a  half  cents  a  ton  a  mile,  against 
eleven  cents  a  ton  a  mile  on  the  macadam,  as  compared  with  the 
present  road,  provided  each  wagon  was  at  all  times,  and  under  all 
conditions,  loaded  to  its  utmost  carrying  capacity. 

It  is  fair  to  assume  that  one-half  the  volume  of  freight  passing 
the  point  of  observation  will  be  benefited  by  a  good  road.  The 
amount  of  freight  teamed  is  270  tons  a  day,  on  which  a  saving  of  two 
and  a  half  cents  a  ton  a  mile  can  be  effected,  amounting  to  a  daily 
saving  of  $3.25.  Deducting  Sundays,  holidays  and  stormy  days,  a 
team  works  about  267  days  in  a  year,  and  the  total  annual  saving 
per  mile  on  this  basis  amounts  to  $868  in  favor  of  the  paved  road 
over  the  macadam,  or  $17,360  in  twenty  years.  By  our  previous 
figures  the  macadam  costs  $10,000  less  in  twenty  years  than  the 
granite  blocks.  By  our  last  estimate,  into  which  we  reckon  the  sav- 
ing on  cost  of  teaming,  we  find  that  the  block-paved  roadway  saves 
us  $17,360,  or  a  net  saving  in  twenty  years  of  $7,360. 

There  are  other  matters  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  connec- 
tion with  this  study.  The  paved  road  is  good  for  the  whole  twenty 
years,  with  no  interruption  to  travel  by  repairs,  while  the  macadam 
will  need  resurfacing  probably  each  two  or  three  years,  and  this,  with 
the  temporary  obstruction  caused  by  breaking  up  the  road  and  using 
a  steam  roller  at  these  short  periods,  inclines  us  to  the  opinion  that  the 
paved  surface  is  in  the  long  run  far  the  cheapest.  The  same  discus- 
sion might  be  continued  on  Western  Avenue,  Beacon  Street  and  Blue 
Hill  Avenue,  where  similar  traffic  observations  were  made  ;  but  suffi- 
cient has  been  said  to  show  the  line  of  study  that  will  be  needed  on 
such  main  thoroughfares  as  lead  into  our  large  cities. 

The  next  point  we  wish  to  call  attention  to  is  the  bad  condition  of 
this  piece  of  road  between  Boston  and  Lynn,  and  the  reason  for  its 
lack  of  care. 

Starting  at  Chelsea  bridge,  where  not  only  the  Lynn  and  other 
Essex  County  traffic  crosses  the  Mystic  River,  but  also  the  traffic 
from  Chelsea,  we  find  a  daily  traffic  of  1,205  against  494  teams  at 
Revere  Street,  or  711  teams  from  Chelsea,  divided  as  follows:  208 
carriages,  613  express  and  414  loaded  wagons;  or  16.8  per  cent, 
carriages,  49.6  per  cent,  express  and  33.6  per  cent,  loaded  wagons. 
The  percentages  indicate  that  there  are  more  loaded  wagons  upon  the 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  51 

way  as  we  near  the  city.  The  traffic  from  Chelsea  is  so  much  larger 
than  that  which  passes  to  Chelsea  from  Essex  County  that  the  Essex 
County  traffic  does  not  enter  as  a  factor  into  the  problem  as  to 
the  kind  of  pavement  to  be  used  at  this  point.  In  fact,  at  this  place 
the  way  becomes  a  distinctively  city  street,  and  must  be  treated  as 
such. 

The  paving  at  Chelsea  bridge  is  laid  on  a  gravel  foundation,  and 
where  undisturbed  by  excavation  retains  its  shape  and  crown  in  good 
condition  for  at  least  twenty  years.  It  is  therefore  safe  to  state  that 
such  a  foundation  is  sufficient  for  a  traffic  of  1,205  teams,  or  2,879 
tons  a  day,  on  a  width  of  42  feet,  or  68  tons  per  foot  in  width. 

A  further  study  of  the  traffic  observations  at  Revere  Street  on 
Broadway  (see  Appendix  J)  shows  that  all  of  the  1,089  tons, 
daily  passing  our  point  of  observation,  benefited  Essex  County  and 
the  city  of  Boston,  except  perhaps  an  occasional  team  to  and  from 
Chelsea  or  Revere.  The  town  of  Revere  receives  no  benefit  from 
this  traffic,  but  is  put  to  the  expense  of  maintaining  a  granite  block 
pavement,  in  order  to  make  it  possible  for  her  own  citizens  to  receive 
the  full  benefit  of  the  good  roadway  through  Chelsea  to  Boston, 
whereas  without  the  Essex  County  traffic  a  good  macadam  road 
would  be  quite  sufficient.  Naturally  the  town  of  Revere  only  under- 
takes such  care  for  the  thoroughfares  as  will  satisfy  the  demands 
of  her  own  people,  and  as  these  demands  extend  only  to  Revere 
Street,  we  find  the  permanent  work  stopped  at  that  point,  and  a 
stretch  of  four  miles  of  road  has  only  so  much  work  done  on  it  as  will 
serve  to  prevent  indictment  before  the  grand  jury.  One  method  of 
procedure,  in  order  to  secure  a  good  road  on  this  debatable  ground, 
would  be  by  petition  to  the  county  commissioners  of  Middlesex 
County,  within  whose  jurisdiction  this  road  lies.  We  are  assured, 
from  the  conditions,  that  Revere  people  will  not  petition,  as  they  do 
not  wish  to  add  to  their  burden,  when  they  know  the  town  will  reap 
no  benefit  from  the  increased  outlay.  Chelsea  does  not  care  what 
state  this  road  may  be  in,  and  the  chances  are  that  no  request 
will  emanate  from  the  people  of  Essex  County  to  the  commissioners 
of  Middlesex  County  for  work  to  be  done  in  Suffolk  County.  The 
result  is,  no  petition  is  likely  to  reach  the  county  commissioners,  and 
the  work  will  surely  not  be  done  without  a  petition,  as  that  is  the  only 


52  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

legal  way  of  bringing  the  subject  before  those  authorities.  If  this 
were  an  isolated  case,  it  must  be  passed  by,  but  unfortunately  it  is  but 
one  of  many. 

The  parties  directly  benefited  by  a  good  road  at  this  point  are  the 
city  of  Boston  and  a  part  of  Essex  County.  Indirectly  Chelsea  and 
Revere  receive  a  benefit,  but  it  comes  only  through  an  increase  in  the 
prosperity  of  Boston,  or  on  the  general  principle  that  what  benefits 
any  one  town  of  the  State  must  benefit  the  whole  State.  As  cases 
similar  to  this  frequently  occur,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  the 
general  welfare  of  the  Commonwealth  is  affected,  and  it  becomes  a 
question  of  State  policy  to  furnish  relief. 

The  question  of  how  near  the  business  centre  of  our  larger  cities 
the  main  thoroughfare  should  extend  is  one  that  will  have  to  be 
decided  by  public  hearings,  at  which  all  parties  interested  are  invited 
to  appear,  and  after  a  thorough  study  of  the  facts  has  been  made. 

The  natural  conclusion  of  the  above  statements  is  that  certain  cases 
arise  in  the  management  of  public  ways  which  cannot  be  overcome 
under  the  present  system  of  county  commission  supervision,  and  that 
the  arbitrarily  defined  county  lines  are  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a 
perfected  general  scheme. 

0*\A  - 
A  Comparison  of  the  Cost  of  Well-made  and  Poorly  Made  Roads. 

There  is  an  almost  entire  lack  of  any  records  as  to  cost  of  con- 
structing the  roads  of  the  poorer  class  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  A 
discussion  of  the  comparative  cost  between  well-constructed  roads 
and  those  on  which  less  skill  has  been  exercised  in  the  selection  and 
proper  arrangement  of  materials  is  thus  rendered  very  difficult.  Only 
those  cities  and  towns  which  are  doing  the  best  work  as  a  rule  keep 
such  a  record  as  will  enable  them  to  know  what  each  part  of  the  work 
costs. 

We  are  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  one  of  the  leading  causes  of 
poor  work  in  many  cities  and  towns  is  an  entire  lack  of  knowledge  of 
its  cost.  It  would  seem  that  some  general  provision  should  be  made, 
looking  toward  a  system  of  uniform  records  of  the  expense  incurred 
in  building  different  kinds  of  work.  There  can  be  no  question  but 
that  such  a  scheme  would  tend  to  organize  a  friendly  rivalry  between 
different  roadmasters  in  the  State,  which  would  be  of  great  advantage 
to  the  different  municipalities. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  53 

There  seems  to  be  among  our  highway  authorities  a  general  feeling 
that  with  a  certain  appropriation  in  hand  the  only  thing  to  be  done  is 
to  expend  it.  It  does  not  occur  to  most  of  the  roadmasters  that 
there  are  different  ways  of  planning  work,  or  that  they  can  ever 
perform  good  work  without  larger  appropriations.  It  can  clearly  be 
shown  that  in  many  cases  much  is  left  undone  that  might  well  be 
accomplished  without  greater  expenditures  than  are  incurred. 

There  prevails  a  mistaken  idea  that  good  work  must  necessarily  be 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  average  city  or  town.  The  object  of  this 
chapter  is  to  show  that  even  in  first  cost  good  work  need  not  demand 
a  much  greater  outlay  than  poor,  while  poor  work  in  a  term  of  years 
will  call  for  a  much  greater  expenditure  than  good. 

It  must  first  be  carefully  noted  that  comparisons  of  different 
classes  of  roads  can  be  made  only  after  a  sufficient  study  of  every 
detail  of  the  structures  which  are  under  consideration.  The  first  cost 
is  necessarily  determined  by  the  proximity  of  suitable  materials.  The 
value  of  the  materials  can  only  be  ascertained  after  a  full  knowledge 
of  the  character  and  amount  of  the  travel.  The  methods  adopted  can 
be  decided  upon  only  after  a  careful  survey  of  the  ground.  It  may 
be  necessary,  even  when  good  materials  requiring  a  long  haul  exist, 
to  accept  a  poor  material  as  on  the  whole  the  cheaper. 

An  ordinarily  poor  gravel  may  be  used  to  advantage  on  a  road 
with  light  carriage  traffic,  and  require  but  little  repairs,  when,  under 
heavy  teaming,  it  would  go  to  pieces  in  a  week.  In  fact,  we  know  of 
a  case  in  Chelsea  where  a  gravel  road  stood  in  good  shape  for  six 
years  under  the  ordinary  travel  of  a  suburban  cross  street,  and  failed 
entirely  in  a  few  days  with  the  traffic  of  the  main  road  from  Boston 
to  Lynn  diverted  through  it.  This  street  was  easily  repaired  after  the 
extra  travel  ceased,  and  has  since  been  in  perfect  condition,  with  a 
smooth,  hard  surface.  We  can  readily  see  that  it  would  be  folly  to 
cover  a  road,  under  such  conditions  as  it  originally  had  to  meet,  with 
broken  stone  at  an  expenditure  of  fifty  cents  a  square  yard,  or  with 
granite  blocks  at  a  cost  of  two  dollars  a  square  yard,  when  the  gravel 
cost  but  ten  cents.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  heavy  traffic  had  been 
continued,  we  should  estimate  the  cost,  first,  of  putting  down  some 
material  that  would  last  for  a  term  of  years,  and  then  compare  it 
with  the  cost  of  the  poorer  material  for  the  same  time. 


54:  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

We  assume  that  the  gravel  road  would  cost  ten  cents  a  square 
yard,  which  in  the  case  referred  to  is  a  reasonable  estimate,  and  that 
a  macadam  road  could  be  constructed  for  fifty  cents,  which  is  also  a 
safe  reckoning.  The  gravel  road  must  be  renewed  once  a  year  ;  the 
macadam  will  last  for  five  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  will  cost 
twenty-five  cents  a  square  yard  to  rebuild  it.  We  easily  estimate  the 
cost  of  the  gravel  road  as  one  dollar  a  square  yard  during  the  ten 
years,  or  ten  cents  a  square  yard  for  each  year. 

In  the  case  of  the  macadam  road,  we  reckon  the  first  cost  to  be  fifty 
cents  and  the  cost  of  repairs  for  the  second  term  ot  five  years  twenty- 
five  cents  ;  this  makes  the  cost  seventy-five  cents  a  square  yard  for  a 
term  of  ten  years,  or  seven  and  one-half  cents  a  square  yard  a  year, 
a  saving  of  two  and  one-half  cents  a  square  yard  annually  in  favor  of 
the  macadam  road.  The  above  estimates  are  made  with  a  full  knowl- 
edge of  the  facts,  and  are  reasonably  accurate. 

Next  let  us  assume  that  the  traffic  has  increased  on  the  above  road 
until  the  macadam  will  last  but  three  years,  while  granite  blocks 
can  be  put  down  for  two  dollars  per  square  yard,  and  will  last  for 
twenty  years.  In  this  case  the  granite  will  cost  ten  cents  a  square 
yard  annually,  and  the  macadam  about  sixteen  and  one-half  cents  for 
repairs,  a  saving  of  about  six  and  one-half  cents  a  yard  annually  in 
favor  of  the  highest  first  cost.  If  we  should  take  into  account  the 
interest  on  the  outlay,  at  say  four  per  cent.,  the  granite  would  cost 
eight  cents  a  square  yard  a  year  additional,  or  eighteen  cents  a  square 
yard  in  all. 

In  the  case  of  the  gravel  road  the  interest  would  apply  to  the  first 
fifty  cents  for  twenty  years,  or  eight  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  while  the 
last  fifty  cents  would  be  an  interest  for  but  two  years.  The  mean 
interest  would  amount  to  seven  and  nine-tenths  cents  a  year  on  each 
square  yard,  thus  bringing  up  the  annual  cost  of  gravel,  including 
interest,  to  twenty-four  and  two-fifths  cents,  against  eighteen  cents 
for  the  granite,  or  an  annual  saving  of  six  and  two-fifths  cents  a 
square  yard  in  favor  of  the  granite. 

In  a  large  part  of  Plymouth  and  Bristol  counties  the  surface  is 
covered  with  sand.  Attempts  have  been  made,  and  with  varying 
degrees  of  success,  to  harden  these  roads  by  the  use  of  clay.  An 
effort  was  made  at  the  hearings  held  by  the  commission  to  ascertain 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  55 

the  cost  of  this  class  of  work.  No  exact  information  was  to  be  had, 
but  a  fairly  accurate  estimate  has  been  made  from  the  quantity  of 
material  used,  the  length  of  haul  and  cost  of  labor  and  teams  ;  this 
we  find  to  be  fifteen  cents  a  square  yard  for  first  cost,  with  renewal 
in  about  five  years,  or  three  cents  a  square  yard  annually.  A  good 
macadam  road  can  be  constructed  for  sixty  cents  a  square  yard ; 
taking  into  consideration  the  small  amount  of  travel,  and  that  the 
road  is  estimated  to  last  twenty  years  with  hardly  any  repairs,  the 
annual  cost  will  be  three  cents  per  square  yard,  or  the  same  in  each 
case. 

Through  certain  parts  of  the  Connecticut  River  valley  a  poor 
quality  of  sandy  gravel  is  hauled  for  considerable  distances,  and  its 
cost  when  delivered  on  the  road  must  be  almost  as  much  as  broken 
trap  rock,  from  Mt.  Tom  or  Mt.  Holyoke.  No  just  comparison  can 
be  made  between  these  gravel  roads  and  macadam,  as  at  no  time  is 
the  gravel  road  in  a  condition  to  give  first-class  results.  From  testi- 
mony given  at  the  hearings,  a  two-horse  load  of  gravel  delivered  on 
the  road  costs  from  one  dollar  to  one  dollar  twenty-five  cents  a  load 
of  about  one  and  a  quarter  cubic  yards.  A  road  made  six  inches  in 
depth  at  this  price  would  cost  from  thirteen  to  twenty-five  cents  a 
square  yard.  More  or  less  new  gravel  has  to  be  put  on  each  year, 
and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  at  the  end  of  each  five  years  an  amount 
equal  to  the  original  depth  has  been  used.  This  brings  the  total  cost 
from  about  ten  and  six-tenths  to  five  cents  a  square  yard  annually. 
If  a  macadam  road  could  be  built  of  broken  stone  that  will  cost  two 
dollars  sixty-eight  cents  per  cubic  yard  of  metal  on  the  road,  includ- 
ing steam  rolling,  the  cost  for  each  square  yard  would  be  about  forty- 
seven  cents.  A  road  built  in  such  a  manner  would  easily  withstand 
the  traffic  common  to  localities  removed  from  the  business  centres  for 
twenty  years,  with  slight  repairs  during  that  time.  This  would  make 
the  annual  cost  per  square  yard  about  two  and  one-third  cents.  By 
these  estimates  the  macadam  road  in  a  term  of  twenty  years  will  cost 
from  about  one-quarter  cent  to  two  and  thirteen-twentieths  cents  per 
square  yard  less  annually  than  the  gravel  road. 

•  The  same  argument  could  be  continued  by  a  comparison  between 
trap  rock  as  the  best  metalling  for  macadam  roads,  or  mica  schist  the 
poorest.  With  light  traffic  in  a  district  abounding  in  the  poorer 


56  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 

material  it  might  be  shown  to  be  economy  to  use  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  traffic  was  known  to  be  heavy,  it  would  probably  cost  less 
in  a  term  of  years  to  use  the  best  of  trap  rock,  although  it  might 
have  to  be  shipped  a  long  distance  by  rail. 

Illustrations  such  as  those  already  given  could  be  indefinitely  mul- 
tiplied, but  a  sufficient  number  have  been  presented  to  make  the 
meaning  clear. 

The  advantage  of  a  good  road  as  to  conveniences,  and  the  increased 
work  which  can  be  performed  by  each  horse,  we  have  left  to  be  dis- 
cussed in  another  part  of  this  report. 

The  Effect  of  Traffic  upon  the  Endurance  of  the  Roadivay,  and  the 
Legislation  pertaining  thereto.  —  Study  of  Tires. 

As  the  main  aim  of  a  road  is  to  withstand  the  destructive  effect 
which  wheels  may  bring  upon  it,  it  is  obvious  that  it  is  important  to 
consider  the  conditions  of  these  instruments  of  destruction.  There  is 
a  general  opinion  to  the  effect  that  the  state  of  our  roads  may  be 
improved  by  compelling  the  adoption  of  wider  tires.  Many  persons 
have  suggested  to  the  commissioners  that  the  first  step  towards  the 
improvement  of  our  roads  should  be  taken  through  legislation  having 
this  end  in  view. 

Fortunately  for  the  consideration  of  this  problem,  the  subject  is 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  thoroughly  discussed  of  all  those  which 
pertain  to  highways.  More  than  a  century  ago  the  authorities  of 
Great  Britain  undertook  to  improve  their  public  roads,  which  were 
then  in  much  the  state  of  our  own  at  the  present  day,  by  legislation 
concerning  the  width  of  tires.  This  earlier  legislation  proceeded 
on  the  theory  that  the  roads  can  be  preserved,  and  in  a  certain  meas- 
ure improved,  by  insisting  upon  wheels  so  wide  upon  the  tread  that 
they  would  not  make  deep  ruts  even  in  a  soft  roadway. 

The  prevailing  sentiment  throughout  our  State  at  the  present  time 
corresponds  to  the  belief  in  England  at  that  early  day.  The  weight 
of  evidence  is,  however,  strongly  opposed  to  the  supposition  that 
any  benefit  results  by  the  use  of  wide  tires  as  a  road-building  agency. 
Mr.  Homer,  writing  in  1767,  said:  "  Broad-  wheeled  carriages  are* 
found  to  be  so  unadapted  to  the  purposes  of  husbandry,  the  number 
of  horses  requisite  for  their  draught  so  great,  and  the  beneficial 


a  2 


a    » 

o  ; 

§  a 
18 

ft 


I      § 

a  s 
§  s> 

Is 

! 
If 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  57 

effects  of  them  to  the  roads  so  questionable,  that  neither  the  encour- 
agements on  the  one  hand,  or  the  discouragements  on  the  other,  have 
been  sufficient  to  bring  them  into  general  use." 

Macadam,  writing  in  1822,  said :  *'  The  advantages  of  many 
existing  regulations  respecting  wheeled  carriages  may  very  well  be 
questioned.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  of  these  regulations 
are  oppressive  to  commerce  and  agriculture  by  compelling  an  incon- 
venient construction  of  carriages.  When  the  Legislature  shall  have 
provided  the  means  of  putting  all  the  roads  in  the  United  Kingdom 
into  the  best  and  fittest  state  for  the  accommodation  of  the  agricult- 
ure and  commerce  of  the  country,  they  will  naturally  consider  the 
most  proper  modes  of  protecting  them  from  injury." 

Thomas  Codington,  for  twenty-five  years  in  charge  of  the  roads  in 
Wales,  said  :  "  Increased  toll  on  narrow  wheels  did  not  prevent  their 
use,  nor  the  carrying  of  heavy  loads  on  them." 

u  The  general  laws  were  repealed  in  Wales  in  1844,  and  in  1878 
the  *  Highway  and  Locomotive  Act '  gave  power  to  county  authorities 
to  make  by-laws  regulating  the  width  of  wheels  in  proportion  to  the 
weight  carried,  and  the  power  has  been  generally  exercised.  Effort 
has  been  made  restricting  the  weight  carried  on  wheels  of  less  than 
four  and  one-half  inches.  It  is  certain  that  narrow  wheels  cause  the 
greatest  damage  to  roads,  but  it  is  difficult  to  enforce  by-laws  against 
them." 

In  the  opinion  of  the  commission,  broad  tires  cannot  be  considered 
in  the  light  of  road-building  engines,  though  they  may  certainly  be 
reckoned  under  the  head  of  preservers  of  good  roads.  As  an  illus- 
tration of  this,  we  wish  to  call  especial  attention  to  the  two  pictures 
herewith  presented  (see  Plate  A).  The  first  represents  a  four-inch 
tire  bearing  up  a  load  of  956  pounds  per  inch  in  width  of  tire,  the 
second  a  three-inch  tire  loaded  to  1,348  pounds  per  inch  in  width  on 
the  rear  wheels.  In  the  first  case  the  ruts  are  about  sixteen  inches 
deep,  while  in  the  second  case  the  heavy  load  per  inch  rests  directly 
on  the  surface.  The  first  road  was  not  properly  built,  and  failed  to 
bear  up  the  load.  The  heavy  wheels  press  down  the  gravel  until  a 
solid  bearing  is  secured,  and  the  wheels  must  pass  in  a  single  rut. 
The  second  road  is  built  of  broken  trap  rock  properly  laid  and  firmly 
rolled,  and  has  stood  this  continuous  wear  with  no  repairs  for  nearly 


58  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

five  years.  This  illustration  is  given  simply  to  show  that  the  road 
must  be  first  properly  built  in  order  to  receive  any  benefit  from  wide 
tires. 

An  extended  experience  in  Great  Britain  and  in  other  European 
countries  has  led  the  trained  roadmasters  of  the  old  world  to  the  con- 
clusion that  with  roadways  of  poor  surface,  made  up  of  materials  so 
imperfectly  united  that  they  will  not  uphold  a  considerable  weight,  it 
is  advantageous  to  h£Ve  the  tires  of  wagons  which  are  to  carry  a 
heavy  burden  of  a  width  to  a  certain  extent  commensurate  with  the 
load  hauled  ;  on  a  well-constructed  road  the  width  of  the  tire  is  a 
matter  of  relatively  small  importance. 

The  French  engineers,  Morin  and  Depuit,  agree  that  on  a  solid 
macadamized  road,  in  a  good  state  of  repair,  there  is  no  difference 
due  to  the  work  of  tires  in  the  amount  that  can  be  hauled  by  a  given 
team.  Macadam,  writing  in  1822,  said  that  "when  roads  are 
properly  made  very  few  regulations  are  necessary  for  their  preserva- 
tion." He  further  said,  "  I  have  never  observed  any  great  difference 
of  effect  of  a  well-made  road  by  narrow  or  broad  wheels  ;  "  and  still 
further,  "  a  well-made  road  may  wear  thin  and  weak,  but  never 
rough,  stony  or  uneven."  On  the  other  hand,  the  same  authorities 
unite  in  saying  that  when  the  surface  is  uneven  and  stony  the  wider 
tire  offers  less  resistance  to  the  passage  of  a  wagon. 

From  our  own  observation  and  from  the  testimony  in  different  parts 
of  the  State  the  wider  tires  offer  many  advantages  which  should 
commend  their  use  to  teamsters  in  general.  There  can  be  no 
question  but  that  on  the  ordinary  roads  larger  loads  can  be  hauled 
with  less  strain  upon  the  horses  and  less  outlay  for  repairs  on  the 
equipments. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  refer  to  the  evidence  given  by 
Mr.  George  W.  Gale,  lumber  merchant  of  Cambridge,  which  is  set 
forth  in  the  report  of  testimony  given  before  the  commission  at  its 
Middlesex  County  hearing. 

It  seems  to  be  commonly  believed  that  the  most  important  element 
in  the  form  of  wheel  is  the  width  of  tire.  In  general,  however,  the 
diameter  of  the  circle  of  the  wheel  is  probably  equally  important,  as 
indicated  by  the  following  statements.  The  French  engineer,  Morin, 
has  shown  by  a  series  of  experiments  that  with  an  equal  load  and  on 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  59 

the  same  roadway  a  wheel  six  feet  eight  inches  in  diameter  made  but 
slight  trace  on  its  passage  over  the  section  of  the  road,  while  a  wheel 
four  feet  nine  inches  in  diameter  cut  deep  ruts,  and  one  ten  and  a 
half  inches  in  diameter  yet  deeper  ruts. 

A  further  experiment,  in  which  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  and  load 
were  the  same,  but  with  different  widths  of  tires,  shows  that  the  tire 
two  and  four-tenths  inches  wide  caused  nearly  double  the  wear  of  the 
four  and  six-tenths  inch  tire.  These  experiments  also  show  that  a 
tire  four  and  six-tenths  inches  wide  causes  no  more  damage  than  one 
seven  inches  wide.  The  general  testimony  on  this  point  is  that  above 
four  and  one-half  inches  in  width  often  there  is  no  special  advantage 
or  saving  in  wear  on  the  road. 

Experiments  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Show  at  Bedford,  England, 
in  1874,  showed  that  it  required  a  pull  of  one  pound  in  moving  thirty- 
five  and  one-tenth  pounds  resting  on  wheels  three  feet  five  inches  in 
diameter,  and  the  same  force  moved  fifty-eight  and  seven-tenths 
pounds  on  wheels  five  feet  in  diameter.  This  shows  that  the  resist- 
ance increases  very  nearly  inversely  as  the  diameter ;  that  is,  a  load 
on  a  wheel  six  feet  in  diameter  can  be  moved  with  one-half  the  force 
needed  to  move  the  same  load  on  a  wheel  three  feet  in  diameter. 
This  difference  is  very  largely  caused  by  the  greater  bearing  surface 
offered  by  the  large  wheel,  and  the  consequent  less  sinking  down  into 
the  road.  As  the  sinking  down  is  what  destroys  a  road,  the  above 
agrees  with  our  former  statement.  It  appears  probable  that  an  addi- 
tional foot  in  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  in  general  of  much  more 
importance  as  regards  the  effect  on  the  roadway  than  an  additional 
inch  on  the  width  of  the  tire. 

The  reason  for  this  difference  in  the  wearing  effect  in  wheels  of 
different  diameters  will  be  apparent  on  the  inspection  of  the  appended 
diagram  (Figure  1 ) ,  from  which  it  will  be  perceived  that  a  wheel  of 
small  diameter  has  to  cut  very  much  deeper  into  the  road  to  win  a 
certain  amount  of  bearing  surface  than  the  broad  wheel.  In  general, 
it  may  be  said  that  on  ordinary  roads  every  vehicle  has  to  bear  down 
the  surface  to  a  certain  depth  as  it  passes,  and  this  in  order  to  bring 
enough  of  the  tire  in  contact  with  the  road  to  uphold  the  load.  On  a 
well-constructed  road  this  down  bearing  may  not  exceed  the  elasticity 
of  the  road-bed,  so  that  it  quickly  springs  back  to  its  place  as  the 


60  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

wheel  goes  on.  On  an  ill-constructed  road  the  same  weight  brings 
about  crushing,  or  displacement  of  the  road  materials,  in  which  case 
the  bed  does  not  return  to  its  previous  position.  It  is  easily  seen 
that  this  effect  concerns  not  only  the  endurance  of  the  road,  but  the 
cost  of  pulling  a  given  weight  over  it.  In  any  case,  the  progress  of 
a  wagon  over  a  road,  even  if  the  road  be  perfectly  level,  is  a  process 
of  going  up  hill.  The  aim  is  to  make  this  grade  as  little  as  possible, 
and  this  can  only  be  effected  by  having  a  road-bed  so  firm  that  it  will 
only  sink  beneath  the  tread  of  the  wheels  to  the  measure  of  its 
elasticity ;  this,  be  it  said,  it  would  do  even  though  the  surface 
were  of  cast  steel. 

A  good  illustration  of  the  point  above  made  is  to  be  found  in  the 
familiar  experience  of  how  much  greater  load  a  given  pulling  force 
will  move  on  a  railway  than  on  an  ordinary  road.  On  a  level  surface 
a  pair  of  horses  will  pull,  if  the  load  rests  on  a  railway,  several  times 
as  much  as  on  a  stone-paved  surface,  the  difference  in  the  two  cases 
being  determined  in  the  main  by  a  sinking  of  the  wheels  under  the 
weight. 

It  is  also  important  to  note  the  fact  that,  although  with  roads  in 
fair  condition  a  considerable  width  of  tire  is  desirable,  both  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  man  who  owns  the  team  and  the  people  who  have 
to  pay  for  the  repairs,  when  the  road  is  very  soft  the  narrow  tire  may 
be  advantageous.  When  a  road  is  in  the  soft  condition  so  common 
in  imperfect  ways,  when  the  frost  is  leaving  the  ground,  it  is  best 
that  the  wheel  should  cut  down  to  whatever  hard  foundation  there 
may  be,  rather  than  to  struggle  with  the  soft  material,  which  is  in  its 
way ;  even  with  the  wide  tire,  the  bearing  surface  is  pretty  certain  to 
descend  to  the  base  of  the  softened  mass.  In  these  conditions  the 
narrow  tire,  because  of  the  small  section  it  presents  to  the  mud,  cuts 
its  way  more  easily,  and  moreover  it  lifts  relatively  little  mud  in  the 
spaces  between  the  spokes  as  it  revolves.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
broad  tire,  because  of  the  width  of  its  sections,  the  large  amount  of 
mud  lifted  up  and  in  general  its  adhesion  thereto,  is  very  dis- 
advantageous. It  is  indeed  often  possible  to  take  a  load  over  a 
muddy  roadway  on  narrow- tired  wheels,  where  it  would  be  almost 
impossible  to  drag  a  broad-tired  wagon. 

It  appears  to  your  commissioners  a  matter  of  doubtful  expediency 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  61 

to  endeavor,  in  the  present  state  of  our  highways,  by  general  legisla- 
tion to  control  the  width  of  tires  'or  the  diameter  of  wheels.  It  is 
clearly  in  the  power  of  the  cities  and  towns  to  pass  ordinances  which 
shall  be  suited  to  their  particular  conditions,  if  it  appears  to  them 
well  to  do  so.  Thus,  as  in  the  case  of  many  of  our  towns  where  the 
roads  are  worn  by  excessively  heavy  loads  drawn  from  particular 
manufactories,  the  local  government  can  practically  at  its  discretion 
pass  limitation  acts.  Experience,  however,  shows  that  such  laws  are 
rarely  enforced. 

In  view  of  the  exceeding  diversity  in  the  conditions  of  the  road- 
ways of  the  Commonwealth,  it  seems  to  the  commissioners  almost 
impossible  to  frame  a  general  law  concerning  vehicles  which  would 
suit  the  needs  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  which  can  be  enforced.  By 
reference  to  the  tables,  which  set  forth  the  character  of  the  wagons  in 
the  various  cities  of  Massachusetts,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  owners  of 
teams  have  adopted  a  great  many  locally  peculiar  arrangements, 
which  clearly  suit  the  conditions  which  they  have  to  meet.  In  other 
words,  the  work  of  teaming  in  the  Commonwealth  has  attained  a  very 
remarkable  specialization,  which  represents  a  great  deal  of  uncon- 
scious labor,  skill  and  experiment,  and  which  has  brought  the  indus- 
try of  conveying  burdens  by  means  of  teams  to  a  higher  state  than 
it  appears  to  have  reached  in  any  other  country.  In  fact,  one  of  the 
most  noteworthy  features  in  the  present  situation  is  that  with  this 
great  skill  as  applied  to  carriages  so  little  has  been  done  in  the  way 
of  roads.  It  may  be  worth  while  to  extend  this  digression  by  calling 
attention  to  the  point  that  the  reason  why  the  wagons  and  other  car- 
riages of  Massachusetts  have  obtained  a  perfection  of  development 
unknown  elsewhere,  the  roads  at  the  same  time  remaining  in  deplor- 
able condition,  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  wagon  is,  as  regards 
its  qualities,  determined  by  the  skill  and  foresightfulness  of  one  or 
two  individuals,  by  the  manufacturer  who  builds  it  and  the  teamster 
who  uses  it,  while  the  roadway  depends  upon  considerations  which  in 
all  cases  demand  a  difficult  kind  of  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the 
whole  community. 

In  considering  the  question  of  changing  the  width  of  tires  on  our 
wagons,  attention  should  be  given  to  the  fact  that  the  cost  of  effect- 
ing this  change,  even  if  a  good  many  years  were  allowed  for  its 


62  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

accomplishment,  would  be  considerable.  There  are  probably  not  less 
than  fifty  thousand  wagons  now  in  use  in  this  Commonwealth  which 
would  have  to  undergo  alteration,  at  a  cost  of  about  twenty  dollars 
each,  or  a  total  of  somewhere  near  a  million  dollars,  —  a  sum  suffi- 
cient to  construct  about  two  hundred  miles  of  road  of  the  kind  which 
would  not  be  likely  to  suffer  from  any  width  of  tires  used  upon  them. 
In  view  of  the  facts  above  set  forth,  which  can  be  almost  indefi- 
nitely amplified,  your  commissioners  do  not  think  it  well  to  recom- 
mend any  legislation  concerning  the  conditions  of  the  tires  of  vehicles. 
They  are  of  the  opinion  that  in  proportion  as  our  roads  are  brought 
into  a  proper  state  the  tire  question  will  become  unimportant. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  63 


CHAPTER    V. 

METHODS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 

CITY  STREETS. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  commission,  as  it  was  evidently  not  the 
intention  of  the  Legislature,  that  any  great  amount  of  its  work  should 
be  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  city  ways.  This  subject  is  one  of 
exceeding  complication,  and  in  general  it  can  be  said  to  have  been 
elaborately  and  effectively  dealt  with  by  the  engineers  of  the  muni- 
cipalities within  the  Commonwealth.  The  types  of  construction 
which  are  now  in  use  in  our  high- traffic  ways,  and  which  are  for  one 
reason  or  another  worth  consideration  in  this  report,  may  be  generally 
classified  as  follows  :  — 

First.  Sectional  pavements,  including  stone  blocks,  wood  blocks, 
brick  and  asphalt  blocks. 

Second.  Sheet  pavements,  including  macadam,  asphalt  and  con- 
crete. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  three  classes  of  highways 
in  this  Commonwealth,  each  of  which  is  characterized  by  several  gen- 
eral conditions  which  may  be  made  the  basis  of  some  advice  as  to 
plans  of  construction.  These  classes  are  as  follows  :  — 

First.  City  streets  on  which  traffic  is  of  the  first  order,  and  where 
the  action  of  the  weather,  on  account  of  the  necessary  methods  of 
construction,  may  be  represented  by  zero  and  traffic  by  three. 

Second.  Main  rural  highways  occupied  by  traffic  of  the  second 
order,  where  the  action  of  the  weather  on  the  highway  may  be  repre- 
sented by  one  and  that  of  the  traffic  by  two. 

Third.  By-ways  or  town  roads,  where  the  effect  of  the  weather 
may  be  represented  by  three  and  that  directly  due  to  the  traffic  by 
zero. 

1.  City  Streets,  with  Traffic  of  the  First  Order,  where  the  Wear  due 
to  the  Weather  is  Zero,  and  that  due  to  the  Traffic  is  Three. 

These  streets  are  divided  into  three  grades,  viz.,  heavy  business 
traffic,  light  business  traffic  and  residential  street  traffic. 

The   heavy-traffic   streets   are   those   which   carry  heavily  loaded 


64  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 

teams,  and  require  a  pavement  which  will  not  only  withstand  the 
direct  wear  of  the  wheels  and  horses,  but  which  shall  have  a  founda- 
tion sufficiently  strong  to  uphold  the  heaviest  loads  that  may  be 
hauled  over  it. 

A  study  of  city  streets  will  show  that  as  we  pass  from  the  business 
centres  the  volume  of  traffic  diminishes,  although  its  character 
remains  the  same.  When  the  only  question  to  be  considered  is  the 
most  economical  pavement,  without  regard  to  the  comfort  of  the  abut- 
ting property  owners,  granite  blocks  unquestionably  should  be  used 
on  all  streets  of  heavy  traffic.  We  have  already  referred  to  the 
volume  of  traffic  observations  on  Broadway  or  Salem  Turnpike  where 
it  crosses  Chelsea  Bridge,  and  to  the  fact  that  the  repairs  on  this 
pavement  were  made  necessary  by  constant  excavations  rather  than 
from  the  traffic.  The  street  is  paved  with  granite  blocks  four  inches 
by  seven  inches  and  seven  inches  deep,  laid  on  a  bed  of  gravel  seven 
inches  thick.  No  effort  was  made  to  compact  the  foundation  by 
rolling.  With  a  daily  traffic  of  about  1,459  tons,  or  forty  tons  per 
foot  in  width  of  street,  this  pavement  retained  its  shape  very  well  for 
nearly  twenty  years ;  the  wear  on  the  granite  blocks,  during  this 
term,  with  a  traffic  of  forty  tons  per  foot  per  diem,  was  not  such  as 
to  affect  their  value  for  further  use.  The  gravel  foundation  was 
found  to  be  ample  to  support  that  burden  of  traffic. 

Taking  the  above-mentioned  facts  into  consideration,  we  might  say 
that,  up  to  a  traffic  of  forty  tons  per  foot  in  width  of  street,  a  gravel 
foundation  for  granite  blocks  is  sufficient.  We  are  not  prepared  to 
state  how  much  beyond  this  volume  of  traffic  gravel  will  remain  safe 
to  use,  but  we  can  affirm  that  when  the  traffic  is  sufficient  to  wear 
the  blocks  so  as  to  make  rounded  tops  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  years, 
something  more  firm  and  unyielding  than  gravel  must  be  used  for  a 
foundation.  We  thus  find  a  necessity  of  dividing  our  heavy-traffic 
streets  into  two  grades,  —  first,  those  where  a  gravel  foundation  may 
be  used ;  second,  those  which  should  be  founded  on  concrete  or 
broken  stone. 

Method  of  Constructing  with  Q-ranite  Blocks  on  Solid  Foundation. 
All  clay  or  earth  should  be  removed  to  a  depth  of  fourteen  inches 
below  the  proposed  finished  surface.     The  bed  should  be  carefully 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  65 

graded  to  the  shape  of  the  proposed  street ;  gravel  should  be  spread 
on  the  foundation  course,  if  needed  to  mix  with  the  natural  founda- 
tion, in  order  to  get  a  firm  bottom,  and  thoroughly  rolled  with  a 
heavy  roller.  Gravel  should  then  be  laid  on  to  a  depth  of  seven 
inches,  the  upper  two  inches  being  free  from  large  stones  ;  the  best 
effect  is  obtained  if  it  is  screened  through  a  two  and  one-half  inch 
mesh.  The  blocks  are  to  be  laid  in  parallel  rows  across  the  street ; 
they  are  to  be  carefully  rammed  until  the  bed  is  solid  and  the  surface 
even.  The  surface  is  then  to  be  covered  with  sand  or  gravel  sifted 
through  a  one-inch  screen,  which  is  swept  into  the  joints  with  a  stiff 
rattan  broom.  The  rammers  are  again  to  be  used  to  correct  any 
inequality,  and  the  whole  surface  is  to  be  covered  with  sand  or 
screened  gravel ;  it  is  then  ready  for  traffic. 

Where  concrete  or  broken  stone  is  to  be  used  the  foundation  should 
be  shaped  and  rolled  in  the  manner  as  already  described,  only  instead 
of  gravel  a  bed  of  concrete  or  stone  six  inches  thick  is  to  be  used. 
The  concrete  should  be  made  of  good  American  cement,  sharp,  clean 
sand  and  screenings  from  gravel  banks,  or,  in  place  of  screenings, 
broken  stone  may  be  used  ;  the  mixture  should  be  made  by  measure, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  part  cement,  two  parts  sand,  five  parts  stone. 
The  cement  and  sand  are  to  be  first  thoroughly  mixed  while  dry,  and 
then  water  is  to  be  added  and  the  mass  turned  over  and  over  until  it 
is  completely  mingled  and  thoroughly  wet.  The  mortar  thus  formed 
is  to  be  carefully  mixed  with  the  stxJne  by  turning  the  materials  over 
with  shovels.  The  concrete  is  then  to  be  thrown  into  the  trench  and 
shaped  by  the  use  of  "  templets"  and  "  straight-edges,"  and  then 
rammed  to  the  proper  grade  and  until  the  water  u  flushes  "  to  the 
surface.  About  one  inch  of  sand  is  then  to  be  spread  on  the  con- 
crete, and  on  this  the  granite  blocks  are  to  be  set,  as  before.  The 
blocks  are  to  be  carefully  rammed,  so  as  to  give  an  even  surface. 
The  joints  are  then  to  be  filled  to  within  about  one  inch  of  the  top 
with  screened  gravel  which  has  been  passed  through  a  three-quarter 
inch  but  will  not  pass  through  a  quarter-inch  screen.  The  gravel  is 
thoroughly  heated  just  before  using,  and,  while  hot,  "  paving  pitch" 
melted  and  brought  to  a  temperature  of  about  300°  F.  is  to  be  run  in 
until  the  joint  is  filled.  The  street  is  then  ready  for  travel.  Although 
at  times  gravel  is  spread  on  the  paving  pitch,  its  use  is  not  to  be 
recommended. 


66  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

If  broken  stone  is  to  be  used,  the  foundation  is  to  be  rolled  as 
before,  the  stone  placed  in  position  and  rolled  with  a  steam  roller 
until  fairly  well  compacted.  Screenings  are  then  to  be  spread  over 
the  surface,  thoroughly  watered  and  rolled  until  a  firm,  unyielding 
surface  is  obtained.  One  inch  of  sand  is  then  to  be  laid  ou,  the 
blocks  set  and  rammed ;  the  joints  filled  with  hot  gravel  and  pitch 
as  before  described.  It  requires  about  three  to  four  gallons  of  pitch 
per  square  yard  of  pavement.  The  blocks  generally  used  are  three 
and  one-half  to  four  and  one-half  inches  wide,  eight  to  twelve  inches 
long  and  seven  and  one-half  to  eight  inches  deep,  requiring  on  the 
average  about  twenty-three  to  the  square  yard. 

The  concrete  costs  about  five  dollars  a  cubic  yard,  or  eighty-three 
cents  per  square  yard  of  pavement.  The  broken  stone  rolled,  in 
place,  will  cost  about  forty-five  to  fifty  ce.nts  a  square  yard  of-  pave- 
ment. 

The  finished  pavements  on  the  average  will  cost  as  follows :  — 

Granite  blocks  on  gravel,    .        .       .,    t    ,t  :     .        ......    .      $225 

Granite  blocks  on  broken  stone,  .        .      '.        .        .        .        275 

Granite  blocks  on  concrete  (about) , 3  75 

2.     Residential  Streets  with  Considerable  Traffic. 

In  selecting  the  pavement  for  a  residential  street,  not  only  the 
character  and  volume  of  traffic  has  to  be  considered,  but  the  demands 
of  the  residents  as  to  cleanliness  and  freedom  from  noise. 

The  pavements  most  used  for  residential  streets  are  sheet  asphalt, 
asphalt  blocks,  wood  blocks  and  brick. 

Sheet  asphalt,  either  "Trinidad"  or  "  rock,"  affords  the  nearest 
approach  to  an  ideal  pavement  which  has  as  yet  been  found.  It  offers 
the  least  resistance  to  travel,  and,  being  jointless,  makes  but  little 
noise  ;  moreover,  it  allows  all  filth  to  be  readily  washed  off,  so  as  to 
leave  a  surface  free  from  mud  in  wet,  or  dust  in  dry,  weather.  The 
only  fault  to  be  found  with  this  material  is  its  cost  and  slipperiness. 
The  high  cost  of  construction,  as  well  as  the  outlay  for  annual  repairs, 
places  it  in  the  list  of  luxuries,  and  it  will  probably  only  be  extensively 
used  in  sections  closely  occupied  by  well-to-do  people. 

The  slipperiness  of  asphalt  pavement  precludes  its  use  on  any  street 
with  a  heavy  grade.  On  a  grade  of  more  than  one  and  three-fourtns 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  67 

to  two  feet  to  the  hundred  it  should  not  be  used.  The  "  Trinidad  " 
asphalt  is  less  slippery  than  the  "  rock,"  for  the  reason  that  the  sand 
used  in  its  manufacture  does  not  glaze  to  such  an  extent  as  the  lime- 
stone which  makes  up  the  body  of  the  "  rock."  Less  fault  is  found 
on  this  ground  with  asphalts  in  districts  where  such  pavements  abound, 
as  the  horses  then  become  more  used  to  it,  and  learn  how  to  keep  their 
feet. 

The  foundations  for  both  "  Trinidad"  and  "rock"  asphalt  pave- 
ments are  to  be  made  by  the  use  of  six  inches  of  concrete,  in  the 
same  manner  as  already  described  for  granite  block  pavement.  The 
greatest  possible  care  must  be  observed  in  rolling  and  shaping  the 
earth  foundation,  as  a  lack  of  this  support  means  a  possible  failure 
of  the  whole  structure. 

The  concrete  must  be  allowed  to  dry  for  a  few  days  before  the 
asphalt  is  put  on.  Trinidad  asphalt  as  used  for  paving  is  a  mixture 
of  refined  asphalt  from  Pitch  Lake  in  the  Island  of  Trinidad  and  sand. 
The  refining  consists  of  heating  the  crude  asphalt  for  five  days  over  a 
slow  fire,  at  a  temperature  not  too  high,  expelling  the  moisture.  The 
roots  of  trees  and  other  vegetable  matter  are  skimmed  from  the 
surface,  the  earthy  matter  settles  to  the  bottom,  and  the  refined 
product  is  run  off  into  barrels.  The  mixture  when  ready  for  use  on 
the  street  should  be  in  the  shape  of  a  powder  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  about  250°  F.,  and  contains,  besides  refined  asphalt,  residuum  of 
petroleum  oil,  fine  sand  and  carbonate  of  lime. 

First  an  asphalt  cement  is  made  by  mixing  the  refined  asphalt  and 
residuum  of  petroleum  oil  in  the  proportion  of  one  hundred  parts  of 
asphalt  and  thirteen  to  twenty  parts  of  petroleum.  The  petroleum 
must  first  be  freed  from  impurities,  brought  to  a  specific  gravity  of 
18°  to  22°  Beaume,  and  a  fire  test  of  250°  F.  The  sand  cannot  con- 
tain more  than  one  per  cent,  of  hydrosilicate  of  alumina,  and  must  all 
pass  through  a  No.  10  screen  (ten  meshes  to  the  inch)  and  none  of  it 
through  a  No.  80  screen.  The  asphaltic  cement  must  have  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.19  at  60°  F.,  and  stand  a  fire  test  of  250°  F.  The  paving 
mixture  is  made  up  of  asphaltic  cement,  twelve  to  fifteen  parts,  sand 
seventy  to  eighty- three  parts,  and  carbonate  of  lime  five  to  fifteen 
parts.  The  process  of  mixing  is  as  follows  :  the  sand,  heated  to 
about  300°  F.,  is  mixed  with  the  cold  carbonate  of  lime.  The  sand 


68  IMPEOVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

and  carbonate  of  lime  mixture  while  hot  is  to  be  mixed  with  the 
asphaltic  cement,  heated  to  about  300°  F. 

The  paving  mixture  is  to  be  brought  in  a  close  cart  to  the  street  at 
a  temperature  of  about  250°  F.,  and  dumped  where  needed.  Hot  rakes 
are  to  be  used  to  level  the  surface  until  it  is  even  and  of  the  proper 
thickness,  which  should  when  finished  be  two  and  a  half  inches  thick. 

The  gutter  should  first  be  rammed  with  hot  rammers  and  then 
ironed  with  a  hot  "  smoothing  iron."  The  joints  should  be  ironed  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  gutter.  The  whole  surface  is  then  to  be 
rolled  by  passing  a  five-hundred-pound  cold  hand  roller  twice  over  it. 
To  prevent  its  sticking  to  the  asphalt,  the  surface  of  the  roller  is  to 
be  slightly  oiled  by  the  use  of  a  rag  dipped  in  kerosene  oil  and 
applied  by  hand  as  the  roller  passes  back  and  forth.  To  prevent  the 
asphalt  sticking  to  the  steam  roller,  and  to  give  a  more  pleasing 
appearance,  the  surface  of  the  street  is  then  swept  with  Portland 
cement,  or  fine  clean  sand,  and  afterwards  a  roller  weighing  five  tons  is 
passed  back  and  forth  over  the  work,  first  lengthwise  and  then  cross- 
wise, until  the  asphalt  is  hard.  The  surface  is  to  be  made  perfectly 
even  and  true  by  the  use  of  hot  irons  and  ' '  tamps  "  between  the  light 
and  heavy  rolling. 

The  gutters  for  about  two  .feet  in  width  are  to  be  painted  over  with 
hot  "  paving  pitch,"  applied  by  ordinary  house  brooms.  During  all 
the  processes  of  rolling  care  must  be  taken  to  "  break  joints,"  in 
order  to  prevent  the  formation  of  ridges  and  to  secure  an  even 
surface. 

In  some  work  it  has  been  specified  that  a  roller  should  give  a 
pressure  of  not  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to  the  inch, 
and  that  the  surface  should  be  rolled  not  less  than  five  hours  to 
each  one  thousand  square  yards.  This  requirement  is  practically 
abandoned,  and  the  present  practice  is  to  roll  continuously  until  no 
further  impression  is  made  on  the  surface. 

The  cost  of  Trinidad  sheet  asphalt  as  above  described  is  about 
$3.50  per  square  yard  in  and  about  Boston.  There  are  three  and 
two-tenths  miles  of  such  asphalt  now  in  use  in  Boston,  and  none  in 
any  other  city  of  the  State.  Rock  asphalt  was  not  used  in  any  part 
of  the  State  as  a  street  pavement  before  1891.  During  this  year  one 
or  two  streets  were  paved  with  natural  rock  from  Kentucky,  and  in 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  69 

1892  two  streets  were  paved  with  the  Sicilian  rock  asphalt.  Through- 
out Europe  the  rock  asphalt  is  used  extensively,  and  has  given  con- 
siderable satisfaction.  It  is  used  in  a  limited  way  in  one  or  two 
American  cities.  The  rock  asphalt  has  all  been  laid  on  a  six-inch 
concrete  foundation,  prepared  and  laid  in  the  same  manner  as  already 
described  for  granite  rock  pavement. 

The  method  of  laying  rock  asphalt  is  as  follows :  the  rock  is  first 
broken  into  pieces  from  two  to  three  inches  through  by  a  stone 
crusher  with  smooth  jaws.  These  pieces  are  reduced  to  a  fine 
granular  shape  by  passing  through  rollers.  The  powder  is  heated  to 
about  250°  F.  when  dumped  upon  the  street.  Two  scantlings  three 
inches  thick  are  laid  down  on  the  concrete  foundation  about  twelve 
feet  apart,  their  ends  being  sprung  down  to  the  concrete  and  held 
there  by  iron  pins  driven  through  the  concrete  into  the  ground. 

The  heap  of  asphalt  is  next  levelled  off  with  hot  shovels,  and  the 
surface  and  thickness  regulated  by  "straight-edges"  worked  on  the 
scantlings.  All  hollow  places  are  filled  by  shovelling  on  more  of  the 
powder.  When  the  top  surface  is  adjusted  the  junction  with  finished 
work  is  made  by  the  use  of  hot  "  joint  irons  "  in  the  hands  of  an 
experienced  workman.  The  whole  section  is  then  rolled  with  a  three- 
hundred-pound  roller,  usually  warmed  by  a  small  fire  in  a  pan 
suspended  from  the  axle  inside  the  roller.  The  gutters  are  then 
made  true  by  a  special  heated  iron.  The  whole  section  is  then 
rammed  by  hot  irons  weighing  about  fifty  pounds.  Eight  of  these 
rammers  are  used,  and  the  men,  beginning  at  the  outside,  pass  around 
each  section  four  times.  The  first  ramming  is  light,  the  others  are 
successively  heavier,  and  in  the  last  the  rammers  are  used  with  the 
full  strength  of  the  men.  A  heavy  nine-hundred-pound  iron  roller  is 
then  used,  and  the  whole  section  is  thus  made  smooth.  The  com- 
pleted surface  is  very  hard,  and  can  be  used  as  soon  as  the  asphalt 
is  cold.  The  cost  of  rock  asphalt  as  laid  in  Boston  was  about  $3.55 
to  $3.75  per  square  yard. 

The  composition  of  rock  asphalt  is  so  complex  that  so  far  time 
alone  has  established  the  value  of  any  particular  mine.  The  usual 
English  and  French  practice  is  to  specify  that  the  asphalt  shall  be 
furnished  from  some  mine  the  product  of  which  is  known  to  be  good. 

There  is  one  other  kind  of  sheet  pavement  which  at  one  time  gave 


70  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

great  promise,  and  which  was  extensively  used  in  Washington  and  to 
a  less  extent  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  that  is  "  tar  con- 
crete." This  pavement  was  made  of  coarse  stones  coated  with  coal 
tar  at  the  bottom,  a  coat  of  concrete  made  of  stones  and  mineral 
pitch,  and  a  wearing  coat  of  mastic  made  of  a  mixture  of  sand  and 
mineral  pitch.  This  preparation,  with  slight  modification  as  to  thick- 
ness and  bottom  course,  is  now  extensively  used  for  sidewalks  and 
street  crossings,  where  it  often  gives  satisfaction. 

The  mineral  pitch  is  made  by  the  distillation  of  coal-gas  tar  to  the 
point  of  removing  all  water  and  the  lighter  oils  and  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  the  heavier  oils.  If  the  process  is  carried  too  far  the  product 
becomes  hard  and  brittle,  and  during  cold  weather  is  liable  to  break 
up.  If  it  is  not  carried  far  enough  it  is  soft  and  sticky,  and  a  pave- 
ment containing  it  will  become  irregular  ;  this  is  particularly  the  case 
in  warm  weather.  The  tendency  of  the  present  practice  is  to  remove 
a  little  more  of  the  oils  than  was  the  practice  heretofore,  and  correct 
by  adding  crude  coal  tar. 

All  products  of  coal  tar  are  subject  to  oxidation  by  the  atmos- 
phere, which  renders  them  brittle  and  devoid  of  cementing  qualities. 
They  are  also  affected  by  changes  of  temperature,  and  become  friable 
in  cold  weather  and  soft  in  warm.  In  the  present  stage  of  manu- 
facture, where  water  gas  is  being  substituted  largely  for  coal  gas,  the 
quantity  of  coal-gas  tar  produced  is  diminishing,  its  price  is  in- 
creasing and  its  quality  is  deteriorating.  Under  these  conditions 
the  chances  of  poor  work  are  much  greater  than  in  former  years. 
In  view  of  the  failures  when  relatively  good  materials  were  easily 
obtained  at  a  lower  price  than  at  present,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that 
the  slight  possible  saving  in  cost  arising  from  the  use  of  tar-concrete 
will  hardly  warrant  its  application  to  street  work.  (Specifications 
for  tar-concrete  paving  are  to  be  found  in  the  Appendix.) 

Asphalt  blocks  are  used  to  a  slight  extent,  and  in  many  respects 
make  a  good  pavement.  In  our  cold  climate  the  blocks  do  not  run 
together,  as  they  are  often  found  to  do  in  a  warmer  climate.  The 
edges  are  very  liable  to  chip  off  under  the  horses'  shoes,  and  a  general 
tendency  of  the  blocks  to  crack  has  been  observed ;  the  roughening 
of  the  surface  thus  produced  tends  to  make  the  footing  for  horses 
more  secure,  but  it  is  slightly  more  noisy  and  less  cleanly  than  sheet 
asphalt. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  71 

The  experience  with  this  class  of  pavement  in  Chicago  was  that  it 
a  firm  footing  but  was  not  satisfactory,  being  too  expensive  and 
uncertain,  and  no  more  of  it  is  being  laid.  In  Washington  asphalt 
blocks  laid  on  coarse  gravel  and  sand,  thoroughly  compacted,  are  still 
good  after  an  almost  continual  use  of  twelve  to  fourteen  years,  and 
will  last  a  long  time. 

In  Boston  certain  streets  have  been  paved  with  asphalt  blocks,  and 
one  advantage  claimed  for  them  is  that  they  can  be  easily  replaced 
after  openings  for  any  kind  of  pipes  have  been  made  through  the  sur- 
face. It  is  asserted  in  Boston  that  it  is  not  so  durable  as  is  the  sheet 
asphalt. 

Two  methods  have  been  employed  in  laying  this  class  of  pavement 
in  Massachusetts,  viz.,  on  a  gravel  and  on  a  concrete  foundation. 

When  laid  on  a  gravel  foundation,  the  same  method  of  procedure 
should  be  employed  as  in  the  case  of  granite  blocks,  only  more  care 
should  be  exercised  in  compacting  the  botto*m  ;  "  barring"  and  tamp- 
ing have  to  be  resorted  to,  in  order  to  thoroughly  settle  doubtful 
spots,  in  addition  to  the  heavy  steam  rolling.  There  should  be  laid 
on  the  gravel  a  layer  of  sand  three  to  four  inches  deep,  which  is  to  be 
brought  to  the  exact  form  of  the  proposed  street  surface  by  the  use 
of  short  strips  of  board  placed  about  six  feet  apart  across  the  street. 
The  blocks  are  to  be  then  laid  in  parallel  rows  across  the  street,  and 
rammed  to  a  solid  bed  by  two  rammings.  The  first  ramming  is  done 
before  any  sand  is  spread  on  top  of  the  blocks.  The  second  ramming 
is  done  after  covering  the  surface  with  sand  and  sweeping  it  into  the 
joints.  The  whole  surface  is  then  covered  with  about  a  half  inch  of 
sand,  which  the  travel  works  into  the  joints.  The  ramming  is  done 
with  the  lighter  wooden  rammers,  the  blow  being  delivered  on  a 
plank,  which  is  laid  crosswise  of  the  street  during  the  first  ramming 
and  lengthwise  during  the  second. 

In  the  case  of  a  concrete  foundation  being  used,  the  methods  and 
materials  are  the  same  as  used  in  laying  the  granite  blocks,  except 
that  the  concrete  bed  is  but  four  inches  thick.  There  should  be  a 
layer  of  sand  laid  on  the  concrete,  carefully  shaped  as  before  described. 
The  blocks  are  to  be  laid  and  rammed,  as  on  the  gravel  bed. 

The  cost  of  paving  with  asphalt  blocks  on  a  gravel  foundation  is 
about  $3.40  to  $3.60  per  square  yard ;  on  the  concrete  bed  its  cost  is 
about  $4.15  per  square  yard. 


72  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

So  far  as  the  commission  has  been  able  to  ascertain,  there  does  not 
at  the  present  time  exist  any  wood  pavement  on  a  public  way  in 
Massachusetts.  The  city  of  Boston  has  from  time  to  time  since  1848 
tried  experiments  with  different  kinds  of  such  pavement,  but  gradu- 
ally these  have  been  replaced  by  other  materials. 

The  abandonment  of  wood  pavements  is  not  peculiar  to  Massachu- 
setts, but  is  characteristic  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States. 
Wood  was  once  more  or  less  used  as  paving  material  in  New  York 
City,  Philadelphia  and  Washington,  as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  the 
large  cities  of  this  country.  In  the  above-named  cities  its  use  has 
ceased ;  in  the  central  and  western  portions  of  the  country  it  has 
diminished,  and  only  in  Chicago  do  we  find  that  this  material  still 
remains  in  favor  to  any  extent.  The  continuance  of  wooden  pave- 
ments in  Chicago  is  doubtless  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
material  which  could  be  used  for  macadam  roads  which  lies  near  that 
city  is  of  poor  quality  ;  good  stone  blocks  are  hard  to  procure,  having 
to  be  brought  from  a  great  distance  ;  while  wood,  which  can  be 
brought  by  water  carriage  plentifully,  exists  in  that  part  of  the 
country. 

Experience  has  shown  that  wooden  pavements  to  have  any  perma- 
nent value  must  be  constructed  with  great  care  and  at  much  cost. 
The  expense  of  such  construction,  at  least  in  this  Commonwealth, 
makes  it  undesirable  that  any  further  essays  in  its  use  should  be 
undertaken. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  in  this  part  of  the  country  asphalt, 
either  in  the  sheet  form  or  in  that  of  blocks,  is  less  costly,  both  as 
regards  original  construction  and  maintenance,  and  quite  as  satisfac- 
tory, as  the  wooden  pavement. 

Below  will  be  found  a  somewhat  detailed  Statement,  setting  forth 
the  conditions  under  which  a  cedar  block  pavement,  of  the  highest 
grade  of  the  wood  types,  should  be  prepared  :  — 

The  foundations  for  the  cedar  block  pavement  are  to  be  made  by 
the  use  of  concrete  in  the  same  manner  as  already  described  for 
granite  block  pavement. 

Upon  the  foundation  prepared  as  above  set  forth,  a  cedar  block 
pavement  consisting  of  one  course  of  blocks  is  to  be  laid.  Each 
block  shall  be  of  the  best  quality  of  selected,  sound  red  cedar,  entirely 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  73 

free  in  all  cases  from  loose  knots,  cracks  and  any  signs  of  decay. 
They  shall  be  entirely  stripped  of  bark,  trimmed  truly  cylindrical  in 
shape,  and  shall  measure  not  less  than  five  inches  nor  more  than  nine 
inches  in  diameter.  They  shall  be  sawed  at  right  angles  to  their  cen- 
tral axes,  making  parallel  faces,  and  uniform  lengths  of  six  inches. 
A  sufficient  number  only  of  the  largest  blocks  shall  be  split  in  halves 
and  used  along  the  lines  of  the  curbs  and  longitudinal  crosswalks. 

In  forming  the  pavement  the  blocks  must  be  carefully  set  in  place, 
properly  resting  on  their  bases  in  close  contact  with  each  other,  and 
must  be  kept  well  driven  together,  that  each  block  may  be  firm  in  its 
position.  The  pavement  must  be  carried  uniformly  across  the 
entire  width  of  the  roadway,  and  to  that  end  the  blocks  must  be 
selected,  using  an  average  mixture  of  the  various  sizes. 

Blocks  having  the  same  diameter  should  in  no  case  be  set  in  rows 
across  the  street ;  the  various  sizes  are  to  be  alternately  intermingled 
with  each  other,  and  each  block  shall  have  a  full-length  close  contact 
with  at  least  three  other  adjoining  blocks. 

After  the  blocks  have  been  placed  in  accurate  positions,  they  must 
be  thoroughly  settled  to  the  correct  grade  of  the  surface  of  the  com- 
pleted pavement,  by  a  system  of  ramming  or  tamping  with  mauls 
weighing  not  less  than  fifty  pounds,  each  having  a  flat  bottom  not  less 
than  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  Each  block  must  be  driven  to  a  firm 
and  solid  bed,  and  when  they  have  been  thoroughly  settled  into  place, 
the  surface  of  the  pavement  thus  completed  must  be  even  and  smooth 
throughout  and  moulded  to  conform  to  the  different  structures,  street, 
alley  and  driveway  intersections,  drainage  details,  and  the  properly 
established  grade  lines.  No  split  blocks  should  be  used  except  along 
the  line  of  curbstones  and  crosswalks. 

All  spaces  existing  in  the  pavement  shall  be  filled  with  gravel, 
thoroughly  rammed  in  with  iron  rammers,  to  a  point  three  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  pavement.  The  remaining  portion  of  the 
various  spaces  shall  then  be  filled  with  hot  gravel,  also  thoroughly 
rammed  with  iron  rammers,  and  immediately  thereafter,  before  the 
gravel  cools,  each  and  every  joint  existing  in  the  pavement  must  be 
filled  full  to  the  surface  of  the  pavement  with  hot  paving  cement,  the 
same  being  carefully  poured  from  a  vessel  having  a  small  spout.  The 
gravel  to  be  used  will  consist  throughout  of  clean,  screened  material, 
not  less  than  one-fourth  inch  and  not  more  than  three- fourths  inch  in 
diameter. 

The  pavement  shall  be  then  swept  clean,  and  the  entire  surface  be 
covered  with  hot  paving  cement  to  a  depth  limited  by  the  amount 
required  to  fully  cover  the  same,  followed,  immediately  thereafter, 
while  the  cement  is  yet  hot,  with  a  coating  of  clean,  coarse  sand,  to  a 
uniform  depth  of  one-fourth  inch  in  thickness. 


74  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

The  paving  cement  is  best  when  made  of  ten  per  cent,  of  refined 
Trinidad  asphalt  mixed  with  coal-tar  cement  distilled  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  not  less  than  600°  F.  The  composition  is  to  be  used  at  a 
temperature  of  not  lees  than  300°  F.,  determined  by  a  gauge  constantly 
attached  to  the  cement  tank  while  in  use  on  the  street. 

The  wood  pavement  as  above  described  will  cost  about  $3.30  to 
$3.60  per  square  yard.  The  cost  of  wood  pavement  without  con- 
crete foundation  will  be  about  $2.50  to  $2.75  per  square  yard. 

Many  wood  pavements  are  laid  on  gravel  or  plank  foundations, 
but  such  practice  is,  in  face  of  past  experience,  hardly  safe  to  follow. 
A  special  commission,  appointed  by  the  city  of  Boston,  reported  in 
1873  that  "  the  foundation  is  indispensable  for  making  good  pave- 
ment. A  flooring  of  one  or  two  inches  thick  is  not  stiff  enough  to 
carry  heavy  loads  over  loose  places,  and  when  there  are  soft  places 
the  pavement  soon  cripples.  No  wood  flooring  will  keep  the  pave- 
ment in  permanently  good  condition." 

A.  M.  Hirsch,  civil  engineer  and  engineer  for  Board  of  Public 
Works,  Chicago,  in  a  recent  report  has  said:  "The  life  of  wood 
pavement  depends  to  an  important  extent  on  the  foundation  ;  and  I 
venture  to  say  that  live  oak,  white  pine  or  cedar,  on  a  hydraulic  con- 
crete foundation  not  less  than  six  inches  thick,  with  water-tight 
joints,  made  by  a  grouting  composed  of  three  parts  of  clean  sand 
and  one  part  Portland  cement,  judiciously  laid  and  taken  care  of, 
will  give  good  economic  results.  Unless  the  foundation  is  rigid,  it 
is  impossible  to  preserve  a  sound  pavement." 

The  city  of  Berlin  has  practically  discontinued  the  use  of  wood 
pavements,  on  account  of  slipperiness. 

The  Board  of  Public  Works  of  New  York  City  in  their  report  of 
1891  said,  "Wood  pavements  are  an  expensive  luxury." 

Col.  Wm.  Heywood,  engineer  and  surveyor  to  the  commission, 
London,  in  his  report  of  1888  said:  "About  forty  years  ago  many 
of  the  principal  thoroughfares  of  the  city  were  paved  with  wood, 
most  of  which  pavements,  from  a  misplaced  ingenuity,  and  complica- 
tion in  design,  proved  unsatisfactory.  Nearly  the  whole  of  them 
were  taken  up  a  few  years  afterwards.  In  1853  but  eight  streets 
remained  which  were  paved  with  wood."  By  the  same  report  there 
appears  to  have  been  in  1888  six  miles  of  wooden  pavement. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  75 

Brick  Pavements. 

Very  little  brick  pavement  has  been  constructed  in  Massachusetts. 
Boston  has  three  streets  and  Springfield  one  which  are  paved  with  this 
material.  The  work  has  been  done  for  so  short  a  time  that  no  judg- 
ment as  to  its  fitness  for  this  region  can  as  yet  be  passed  upon  it. 
During  the  past  few  years  a  great  many  cities  throughout  the  country 
have  been  using  brick  pavements,  and  the  general  report  seems  to  be 
that  this  method  of  construction  has  given  satisfaction. 

It  appears  likely  that  on  streets  which  have  to  bear  a  heavy  traffic 
pavements  made  of  brick  will  be  found  insufficiently  enduring.  On 
light-traffic  streets,  whenever  proper  care  has  been  exercised  in  the 
construction,  it  has  given  thoroughly  satisfactory  results  throughout 
the  entire  West  and  South.  When  there  has  been  a  lack  of  care  in 
preparing  the  foundation  or  in  selecting  the  bricks,  an  uneven, 
chipped  surface  has  been  the  result. 

From  Bloomington,  111.,  and  Charleston,  W.  Va.,  we  have  state- 
ments that  brick  pavements  have  been  in  constant  use  for  sixteen  and 
eighteen  years,  with  but  slight  repairs,  and  are  still  in  good  condition. 

It  is  generally  believed,  but  without  sufficient  inquiry,  that  clay 
which  is  fit  for  making  paving  brick  does  not  exist  in  Massachusetts  ; 
experiment  alone  can  determine  this  ;  as  yet,  only  those  have  been 
used  which  were  either  made  outside  the  State  or  of  clay  which  was 
brought  from  other  parts  of  the  country.  These  conditions  add 
nearly  forty  per  cent,  to  the  first  cost  of  the  brick,  and,  as  will  be 
shown  in  the  case  of  Springfield,  this  amounts  to  nearly  thirty-two 
cents  per  square  yard  of  pavement.  Unless  suitable  clay  can  be 
found  in  our  own  State,  the  cost  of  brick  pavement  will  be  very 
nearly  if  not  quite  as  great  as  that  of  granite  blocks.  The  un- 
certainty of  securing  brick  which  have  been  burned  to  an  equal 
hardness  and  the  comparatively  high  cost  of  the  completed  pavement 
will  limit  its  use  to  purely  residential  streets,  where  cleanliness  and 
noiselessness  are  desired,  at  a  comparatively  low  cost. 

We  give  below  a  description  of  a  street  in  Springfield,  which  last 
year  was  paved  with  brick,  together  with  the  cost  of  the  work. 


76  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

Description  of  Brick  Pavement  as  Constructed   in  Springfield  by  W.  L. 
Dickinson,  Superintendent  of  Streets  (1892). 

The  pavement  was  laid  on  a  street  occupied  by  residences  only  j 
the  grade  was  slight.  Two  courses  of  brick  were  put  down  ;  those 
used  in  the  bottom  course  were  made  in  Springfield  ;  those  of  the  top 
course  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  The  bottom  course  was  laid  flat,  and  the 
top  course  on  edge.  The  area  covered  was  1,697  square  yards.  The 
bed,  which  was  quartz  sand,  was  first  graded  so  as  to  conform  to  the 
proposed  surface,  and  rolled  with  a  fifteen- ton  steam  roller  until  it 
was  solid  and  even.  Sand  was  then  laid  on  to  the  depth  of  one  inch  ; 
on  this  was  placed  a  course  of  hard-burned,  common  brick,  laid  flat- 
ways. These  were  rammed  with  wooden  "  rammers,"  weighing  about 
thirty  pounds  each. 

On  top  of  this  course  of  brick,  and  lengthwise  of  the  street,  three 
strips  of  inch  battens  were  placed,  —  one  in  each  gutter  and  one  in 
the  centre.  The  whole  surface  was  then  covered  with  sand  ;  this  was 
brought  to  an  even  thickness  of  one  inch  by  means  of  wooden 
*'  templets,"  which  were  cut  on  a  curve  to  fit  the  shape  of  the  pro- 
posed street,  and  guided  as  they  were  moved,  by  the  strips  already 
referred  to.  The  strips  were  then  taken  up  and  the  spaces  thus  left 
carefully  filled  in  with  sand.  The  top  course  of  brick  was  then  laid, 
on  edge  so  as  to  break  joints,  and  was  firmly  rammed  by  a  wooden 
"  rammer "  weighing  eighty  pounds,  worked  by  two  men;  the  blow 
was  given  on  a  two-inch  plank  (eight  feet  long  and  ten  inches  wide), 
which  was  moved  along  by  two  men. 

The  whole  surface  was  then  swept  clean  and  the  joints  filled  in 
with  Portland  cement,  with  enough  water  to  allow  it  to  run  easily. 

Cost  of  Syracuse  brick  (per  thousand) ,  ....        $11  00 

Cost  of  freight, 4  00 

Cost  of  teaming, 1  00 


Cost  delivered  on  street,    .        .        .        .        .        .  $16  00 

Cost  of  common  brick  on  street  (per  thousand) ,    .        .  $7  00 

Cost  of  sand  per  cubic  yard, 60 

Pay  of  pavers  per  day, 2  00 

Pay  of  rammers  per  day,  and  other  labor,      ...  1  50 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 


77 


Cost  of  Completed  Work. 


Total  Cost. 

Cost  per  Square 
Yard. 

Syracuse  brick  (number  to  square  yard),  79.5, 
Common  brick  (number  to  square  yard),  44.79, 

f2,127  58 
532  00 
287  28 

$1   253 
313 

170 

Cement,  78  barrels,  ...... 

191  10 

1126 

Cementing,  
Labor  in  paving,  etc.,  ...... 

33  75 

481  87 

02 
283 

13,653  58 

$2  15 

MAIN  RURAL  HIGHWAYS. 

The  art  of  road  building  consists  mainly  in  constructing  a  wearing 
surface  which  shall  be  able  at  all  times  to  bear  up  the  load  that  may 
be  hauled  over  it. 

The  fanner  by  using  very  broad  tires  may  be  able  to  haul  small 
loads  for  a  limited  number  of  times  over  the  greensward.  If  the 
amount  of  the  load  should  be  increased,  the  width  of  the  tire 
decreased,  or  the  vehicle  be  made  to  pass  repeatedly  over  the  same 
place,  the  wheels  would  soon  cut  through  the  sod  and  softer  soil  until 
they  reached  a  comparatively  firm  foundation.  The  depth  of  the 
ruts  thus  formed  would  depend  on  the  character  and  number  of  loads 
hauled,  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  state  of  the  weather. 

The  above-mentioned  conditions  are  those  which  should  be 
most  carefully  noted  by  those  who  have  to  construct  any  roadway. 
A  light  carriage  which  might  do  no  injury  to  a  dry  road  would  soon 
destroy  it  if  wet.  Water  may  reach  a  roadway  either  by  falling  as 
rain  directly  upon  it,  by  flowing  upon  it  from  either  side,  or  by  lat- 
eral soakage  through  the  ground. 

Rain  falling  directly  on  the  surface  will  do  little  or  no  harm  to  a 
well-constructed  road,  but  if  it  be  allowed  to  attain  to  and  remain  in 
the  foundation  the  road  will  soon  be  destroyed.  There  are  two  rules 
which  must  be  observed  in  order  to  maintain  a  road  in  good  condi- 
tion :  first,  take  the  water  out ;  second,  keep  the  water  out.  If  these 
simple  rules  are  followed,  the  foundation  will  be  dry  and  therefore 


78  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

well  fitted  to  uphold  the  surface,  while  the  surface,  being  impervious- 
to  water  at  all  times  and  under  all  conditions,  is  fitted  to  withstand 
the  loads  it  may  properly  be  called  upon  to  bear. 

Where  sand  or  gravel  underlies  a  road  which  is  moderately 
elevated,  no  special  precaution  need  be  taken  to  carry  off  the  water, 
as  it  will  quickly  pass  downward  to  where  it  can  do  no  harm.  If  a 
road  is  constructed  over  clay  or  loam  foundation,  then  the  only  safe 
method  will  be  to  put  in  a  suitable  drain  or  drains  ;  if  the  ground 
is  level  or  rises  on  both  sides,  one  drain  should  be  placed  on  each 
side ;  if  the  road  traverses  the  side  of  a  hill,  one  drain  constructed 
on  the  uphill  side  will  cut  off  all  ground  water  and  prevent  its  pass- 
ing under  the  way. 

Whatever  method  of  drainage  be  used,  the  channels  should  be  con- 
nected with  either  a  main  drain  or  watercourse.  The  coarse  stone  used 
as  a  foundation  to  a  Telford  road  has  served  this  purpose  of  drainage 
admirably  well,  and  may  advantageously  be  used,  unless  small  blind 
drains  can  be  built  to  serve  the  same  purpose  equally  well,  at  less 
cost. 

Where  the  ground  is  wet  and  much  depth  of  loam  or  fibrous  soil  is 
encountered,  it  will  probably  be  the  safer  plan  to  use  the  large  stones 
if  they  are  near  by  and  plentiful,  which  shall  serve  the  double  purpose 
of  foundation  and  drainage.  The  sub-grade,  or  the  ground  on  which 
the  large  stones  rest,  should  be  thoroughly  compacted  by  rolling.  If 
necessary,  gravel  should  be  laid  on  before  rolling,  to  prevent  the  soil 
of  the  sub-grade  from  pressing  up  among  the  large  stone.  Blind 
drains  should  be  built  by  excavating  longitudinal  trenches  from  two 
and  a  half  to  three  feet  deep  and  ten  to  twelve  inches  wide,  to  be 
filled  in  with  broken  stone,  coarse  gravel  screenings  or  pebbles.  A 
small  porous  drain  tile  is  usually  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench, 
the  stone  to  be  thoroughly  tamped  over  it,  to  prevent  any  further 
settlement  of  the  surface.  In  placing  the  large  stone  for  a  Telford 
road,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  are  to  act  as  a  foundation, 
and  must  transfer  the  weight  of  the  upborne  load  to  the  soft  sub- 
grade.  They  should  therefore  be  placed  as  close  together  as  possible, 
and  have  a  good  flat  face  to  rest  upon.  The  smaller  end  or  points  of 
the  stone  should  stand  up.  The  spaces  that  may  be  left  between  the 
stone  should  be  filled  in  with  wedge-shaped  bits  placed  point  down- 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  79 

ward,  and  driven  in  solidly.  Such  points  as  may  project  above  the 
proper  line  should  be  broken  off  by  hammers.  The  foundation  course 
must  then  be  evened  up  by  the  use  of  smaller  stone,  and  rolled  until 
no  settlement  occurs. 

In  case  the  road  lies  upon  a  heavy  clay,  it  may  be  safe  not  only  to 
put  in  the  Telford  bottom  as  already  described,  but  also  to  build  blind 
drains  which  shall  quickly  remove  all  water  from  the  sub-grade.  The 
finishing  of  the  road  will  come  under  the  description  of  macadamizing. 

By  careful  underdraining  an  otherwise  poor  material  may  make  a 
good  roadway.  The  wearing  surface  may  consist  of  broken  stone  or 
gravel. 

Gravels  are  to  be  found  widely  distributed  over  the  State  which 
will  make  a  good  road,  provided  the  way  is  in  the  main  to  be  used  by 
light  spring  vehicles.  Some  of  the  gravels  such  as  those  found  in  Sau- 
gus  and  Lynn  are  made  up  of  angular  pebbles  and  material  which  bind 
the  stones  so  firmly  together  that  they  must  be  picked  from  the  banks 
with  considerable  difficulty  and  labor.  This  gravel  taken  from  the 
bank  and  used  directly  on  the  way  with  no  rolling  will  shortly  make  a 
hard,  smooth  road.  Some  light- traveled  roads  made  of  this  gravel 
in  Saugus  have  been  in  continuous  use  for  twelve  years,  with  no  re- 
pairs, and  are  yet  in  good  condition.  In  but  few  cases  can  our  gravel 
be  economically  used  on  the  main  roads,  over  which  there  is  much 
travel. 

Nearly  all  gravel  banks  now  in  use  contain  more  or  less  stone  from 
the  size  of  an  egg  upward,  with  quite  a  large  percentage  exceeding 
two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter.  No  stones  larger  than  two  and 
one-half  inches  through  should  be  used  within  four  inches  of  the  sur- 
face in  the  construction  of  a  road.  The  general  tendency  is  for  these 
large  stone  to  work  to  the  surface  and  to  make  a  very  rough,  uneven 
road  after  it  has  been  in  use  a  short  time.  A  good  road  often  can  be 
built  of  gravel  by  first  screening  out  all  that  which  will  pass  through 
a  one-inch  screen  and  will  not  pass  through  a  three-inch  screen. 

The  foundation  should  be  prepared  if  necessary  by  rolling. 
Screenings  should  be  placed  in  this  bottom  and  covered  about  one  or 
two  inches  thick  with  a  coating  of  the  gravel  that  has  passed  through 
the  one-inch  screen.  This  gravel  should  contain  a  small  proportion 
of  hard  pan  or  soil  of  some  kind  as  a  "  binder."  The  whole  road- 


80  IMPKOYEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

way  should  then  be  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller  until  it  becomes  hard 
and  smooth.  Fine  gravel  will  not  make  a  good  road  if  the  travel  is 
at  all  heavy.  The  small  stones  quickly  crush  up,  and  the  surface  of 
the  roads  becomes  uneven  and  muddy.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  in  a 
term  of  years  a  gravel  road  will  not  cost  as  much  as  a  macadam 
road,  and  it  can  never  be  as  enduring ;  the  wearing  surface  receives 
the  shock  of  all  traffic ;  the  materials  for  its  construction  must  be 
carefully  selected. 

The  fundamental  difficulty  with  all  roads  made  of  ordinary  gravel 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  fragments  of  the  material  cannot 
be  made  to  bind  together,  however  well  they  may  be  compressed  by  the 
use  of  the  roller ;  the  result  is  that  the  first  condition  of  the  road- 
way surface  which  should  shed  water  like  a  roof  is  not  obtained. 
The  rain  penetrates  vertically  downward  through  the  mass,  breaking 
up  what  little  adhesion  may  have  been  brought  about  in  the  mass, 
so  that  when  a  heavy  team  passes  over  it  it  is  not  upheld.  The 
wheels  do  not  penetrate  to  any  great  depth  in  the  roadway,  but  they 
form  ruts,  by  loss  of  material  which  is  ground  up  by  that  passage. 
Moreover,  this  rut  becomes  a  place  in  which  the  water  is  held,  and  its 
penetration  downward  and  consequent  softening  of  the  roadway 
insures  its  destruction. 

It  is  not  only  the  duty  of  the  roadmaster  to  build  well,  but  it  is  as 
much  his  duty  under  his  conditions  to  build  economically.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  main  thoroughfares  throughout  the  State  can  be 
built  and  maintained  of  broken  stone  for  less  money  than  of  any 
other  material.  We  have  already  described  the  methods  employed 
in  order  to  secure  a  good  foundation  when  the  road  traverses  wet 
ground.  By  far  the-greater  part  of  the  main  roads  of  the  State  will 
require  no  special  provision  to  be  made  for  their  underdrainage.  In 
many  localities  they  traverse  ground  that  is  naturally  drained.  In 
other  places  their  surfaces  have  been  covered  with  gravel  until  it  has 
mingled  with  the  original  soil  of  the  way  so  as  to  form  a  solid  surface. 
In  these  instances  a  roadway  of  broken  stone  from  six  to  nine  inches 
thick  can  be  easily  constructed  and  cheaply  maintained. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  existing  top  in  order  to  make 
the  proposed  roadway  conform  to  a  desired  cross-section.  Under  no 
other  condition  should  a  hard  surface  be  broken  up.  If  the  surface 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  81 

is  found  to  be  hard,  the  broken  stone  should  be  put  directly  upon  it ; 
if  loose  and  rutted,  it  should  be  first  graded  to  the  shape  of  the  pro-' 
posed  roadway  and  then  firmly  compacted  by  the  use  of  a  roller. 
When  the  material  which  is  to  constitute  the  foundation  is  found  to 
be  too  soft  to  roll,  gravel  should  be  laid  on  until  the  roller  can  be 
properly  worked. 

If  loose  sand  or  gravel  be  found,  which  will  not  compact  under 
the  roller,  then  hard  pan,  loam  or  other  suitable  material  should  be  laid 
on  to  the  depth  of  about  one  inch,  to  serve  as  a  "binder."  The 
metal  should  act  in  a  double  capacity :  first,  it  should  furnish  a  firm, 
smooth-wearing  surface  ;  second,  it  should  constitute  an  impervious 
roof  which  will  prevent  the  water  that  may  fall  upon  its  surface  from 
reaching  the  foundation.  About  forty-seven  per  cent,  of  the  volume 
of  the  broken  stone  as  ordinarily  delivered  consists  of  void  space. 

The  process  of  rolling  tends  to  move  the  bits  of  stone  back  and 
forth  and  downward.  This  process  should  be  continued  until  the 
stones  are  brought  as  near  together  as  their  shapes  will  permit.  The 
void  spaces  should  be  reduced  by  rolling,  from  forty-seven  per  cent,  of 
the  volume  of  the  stone  to  ten  or  twenty  per  cent.  These  remaining 
spaces  should  be  filled  with  some  substance  which  shall  prevent  the 
bits  from  moving  after  they  are  once  firmly  placed.  If  the  bottom 
soil  be  properly  compacted,  it  will  bear  up  the  broken  stone  during 
the  process  of  rolling,  and  the  metal  will  not  be  pressed  into  it. 
After  the  rolling  has  been  completed  and  the  interspaces  of  the 
metal  thoroughly  filled  with  the  "  binder,"  the  roadway  will  form  a 
barrier  between  the  surface  and  the  foundation. 

Following  is  a  description  of  the  methods  of  building  a  macadam 
roadway  :  — 

Broken  stone  from  one  to  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter 
should  be  placed  on  the  compacted  bottom  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four 
inches,  and  the  steam  roller  passed  over  it  four  or  five  times.  Then 
more  broken  stone  of  the  same  size  should  be  laid  on  to  a  depth  of 
three  to  four  inches  in  the  centre  of  the  roadway,  and  two  to  three 
inches  at  the  sides.  This  should  be  rolled  by  the  steam  roller  until 
a  hard  bit  of  stone  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  if  it  be  placed 
on  the  surface  of  the  roadway,  will  be  broken  by  passing  the  wheel 
of  the  roller  over  it. 


82  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

When  the  rolling  on  the  top  layer  of  stone  has  been  about  half 
.completed,  it  is  the  custom  of  some  road  builders  to  strew  sand  over 
the  surface  as  the  roller  passes  back  and  forth.  This  sand  should  be 
applied  until  the  interspaces  are  filled.  Other  road  builders  lay  on 
screenings  from  the  crusher  varying  in  size  from  the  dust  to  one-half 
inch  in  diameter,  to  the  depth  of  about  one  inch.  This  material  should 
be  thoroughly  watered  and  rolled  until  the  dust  and  smaller  bits  of 
stone  are  worked  into  the  spaces  and  bind  the  stone  firmly  together. 
The  larger  pieces  will  be  mixed  with  the  dust  that  is  left ;  these, 
uniting  together,  will  form  a  hard,  smooth-wearing  surface. 

The  surface  of  a  roadway  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  allow  the 
water  to  flow  quickly  into  the  gutter.  If  the  rise  from  the  gutter  is 
great,  the  travel  is  forced  to  pass  along  the  centre,  and  this  will  soon 
wear  down  to  such  an  extent  that  water  will  stand  on  the  surface  of 
the  way.  In  addition  to  this,  the  water  will  make  gullies  in  the  sides 
of  the  roadway,  which  will  at  all  times  be  a  discomfort  and  often 
indeed  dangerous  to  travellers.  The  crown  to  be  given  is  not  to  be 
determined  by  any  fixed  rule,  but  the  best  roadmasters  allow  from 
one-half  to  an  inch  on  level  ground,  and  as  much  more  on  a  hill  as 
will  allow  the  water  to  reach  the  gutters  before  it  can  attain  a 
velocity  that  will  do  any  harm. 

A  macadamized  road  will  endure  for  a  longer  time  if  its  surface  is 
sprinkled  often  enough  to  keep  it  damp.  The  screenings  when  damp 
possess  greater  cementing  powers,  and  the  stone  will  not  so  easily  be 
kicked  out  by  the  horses'  feet.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
covering  of  screenings  should  not  be  expected  to  do  more  than 
bind  the  metal  firmly  together. 

The  dust  and  sand  which  will  be  formed  by  the  action  of  the 
wheels  on  the  smaller  bits  of  stone  should  be  quickly  removed.  If 
it  be  allowed  to  remain,  the  water  will  stand  on  the  roadway  instead 
of  flowing  rapidly  into  the  gutters.  The  water  thus  held  back  will 
gradually  work  into  the  spaces,  and  loosen  the  bond  between  the 
fragments.  If  this  bond  should  be  disturbed  to  any  extent,  the  stone 
will  work  loose  and  the  roadway  soon  be  destroyed. 

In  another  part  of  our  report  will  be  found  a  careful  description  of 
the  kinds  of  stone  which  are  suited  for  road  construction.  These 
are  placed  so  as  to  be  generally  useful.  There  are  a  few  plants 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  OD 

which  now  furnish  broken  stone  at  points  where  it  is  needed.  Broken 
stone  can  unquestionably  be  furnished  in  any  part  of  the  State  at  a 
price  not  exceeding  $1.30  a  ton  on  the  cars.  If  the  demand  becomes 
general  from  towns  near  together  this  price  may  be  reduced.  Trap 
rock  broken  in  Meriden,  Conn.,  has  been  shipped  to  Springfield  at  a 
less  cost  than  that  city  could  produce  it  from  its  own  crusher. 
Towns  will  be  found  where  the  stone  delivered  by  rail  will  have  to  be 
teamed  over  many  miles  of  country  roads.  The  expense  of  teaming 
will  probably  add  so  much  to  the  cost  of  the  stone  that  it  will  be 
found  to  be  economy  to  place  a  crusher  in  the  town.  The  work  re- 
quired in  such  cases  will,  without  doubt,  be  scattered  over  a  large 
territory,  and  a  portable  crusher  can  be  used.  This  can  be  located 
so  as  to  work  a  distance  of  about  one  mile  in  each  direction,  with  an 
average  haul  of  about  one-half  mile.  Field  or  bank  stone  can  be 
broken  by  these  crushers,  and  the  cost  of  delivery  on  the  work  will 
be  small.  We  shall  give  an  itemized  list  of  the  cost  of  breaking 
stone  under  the  different  conditions.  It  will  be  found,  on  close  ex- 
amination of  the  reports  from  the  different  towns,  as  sent  to  this 
commission,  that  there  are  many  cases  where  gravel  of  a  poor  quality 
is  now  being  used,  and  that  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  roads  is 
great.  An  inspection  of  these  gravel  roads  shows  that  they  are  about 
as  poor  as  they  can  be. 

Macadam,  writing  eighty  years  ago,  said,  "A  well-made  road  can 
never  wear  rough  and  uneven."  The  road  builder  of  to-day  finds 
this  to  be  true. 

Roads  as  constructed  by  Macadam  were  compacted  by  the  teams 
that  passed  over  them.  The  results  obtained  were  good,  but  expen- 
sive. The  wear  and  tear  on  horse  and  vehicle  during  the  time  they 
were  working  over  the  loose  stone  was  very  great.  In  addition  to 
this,  it  was  necessary  to  have  men  constantly  at  work  with  rakes  and 
shovels  to  fill  the  ruts  as  they  began  to  appear. 

Roads  which  were  compacted  by  the  traffic  have  been  carefully 
examined,  and  the  materials  analyzed.  In  certain  instances  where 
metal  had  originally  been  used,  in  pieces  varying  from  one  to  two 
inches  through,  it  was  found  to  have  been  ground  up  under  the  wheels 
and  horses'  feet  so  that  forty  per  cent,  of  it  was  mud,  and  less  than 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  mass  was  composed  of  fragments  which  retained 


84  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

the  size  they  had  when  originally  built  into  the  roadway.  The  loss 
incurred  from  the  reduction  in  the  size  of  the  bits  which  were  in  the 
end  to  be  compacted  in  the  roadway  has  to  be  added  to  the  other 
elements  of  waste  incurred  wHere  the  rolling  was  left  to  be  done  by 
the  wheels.  It  seems  probable  that  this  loss  is  sufficient  to  repay  the 
cost  of  compacting  by  rollers  especially  adapted  to  that  purpose. 

Road  rollers  are  divided  into  two  essentially  different  types,  — 
those  which  are  propelled  by  horses  and  those  which  are  driven  by 
steam  power.  The  effects  arising  from  the  use  of  these  two  diverse  • 
contrivances  differ  in  an  important  way.  'Where  a  roller  is  driven  by 
horses,  the  effect  arising  from  the  tread  of  the  animals  is  to  break 
up  the  road,  or,  in  other  words,  neutralize  the  work  for  which  the 
roller  is  used.  Where  the  machine  is  of  sufficient  weight  to  do  good 
work,  it  requires  from  four  to  six  horses  to  keep  it  in  motion, 
and  the  consequent  disturbance  of  the  way  before  it  has  become 
thoroughly  compacted  is  a  very  serious  hindrance  to  the  prosecution 
of  the  work.  Moreover,  experience  shows  that  a  road  thus  finished 
by  horse  roller  is  pretty  sure  to  have  at  many  points  depressions 
which,  though  they  are  for  the  time  filled  by  fine  material,  shortly 
reappear  and  break  the  desired  perfect  smoothness  of  the  way. 

In  the  case  of  the  steam  roller,  where  the  power  is  applied  directly 
1x>  the  wheel,  we  have  the  advantage  that  a  weight  greater  than  that 
which  can  be  conveniently  drawn  by  horses  can  be  used,  and  there 
are,  of  course,  no  such  difficulties  as  are  brought  about  by  the  action 
of  the  horses'  feet.  Experience,  moreover,  shows  that  the  cost  of 
running  a  roller  of  sufficient  weight  to  compact  a  surface  in  a  reason- 
able time  is  greater  where  it  is  propelled  by  horses  than  where  it  is 
moved  by  steam.  An  element  of  importance  is  the  time  required 
with  the  two  classes  of  engines.  Owing  to  the  relatively  great 
weight  of  the  steam  roller,  it  requires  fewer  movements  over  the 
surface  to  insure  the  necessary  compaction. 

The  cost  of  rolling  with  a  steam  roller  may,  in  general,  be  esti- 
mated at  from  five  to  ten  cents  per  square  yard  of  the  way,  while  the 
expense  of  the  same  work  performed  with  horses  will  in  most  cases 
be  from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  per  cent,  more  than  that  estimate. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  85 

Grades  of  Massachusetts   Roads. 

So  far  as  the  grades  are  concerned,  the  roads  of  Massachusetts 
have  been  generally  neglected.  In  many  cases  this  neglect  h?,s  been 
enforced  by  legislative  provisions,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Newbaryport 
Turnpike.  Nearly  all  the  old  turnpikes  are  in  this  condition,  and  as 
these  in  their  present  state  of  our  public  ways  constitute  the  larger 
part  of  the  important  avenues  of  the  Commonwealth,  the  effect  of 
these  provisions  has  been  very  detrimental. 

In  general,  the  alignment  of  our  roads  with  reference  to  natural 
conditions,  such  as  the  nature  of  the  under-earth  or  access  to  con- 
struction materials,  has  been  to  a  great  extent  neglected.  The  infor- 
mation which  the  commission  feel  it  possible  to  give  in  this  report 
concerning  the  matter  of  grades  is  but  limited,  and  this  for  the  reason 
that  all  such  questions  need  to  be  discussed  with  reference  to  the  par- 
ticular geographical  and  physical  conditions  of  the  site  where  the 
proposed  road  is  to  be  built. 

Very  carefully  made  experiments  show  that  on  perfectly  level 
surface  the  character  of  the  way  may  very  much  affect  the  amount  of 
power  required  to  move  a  given  load :  thus,  on  a  smooth  paved 
surface  of  ordinary  character,  33.4  pounds  of  traction  will  start  a 
load  weighing  one  ton  ;  on  a  first-class  macadamized  road,  44  pounds 
of  traction  ;  on  a  thin  macadam  road,  with  a  foundation  of  somewhat 
springy  nature,  62  pounds  ;  while  on  a  gravel  road  of  good  character 
140  pounds  is  required  to  start  the  load. 

The  same  facts  may  be  otherwise  expressed  by  the  statement  that 
where  one  horse  would  pull  a  load  on  a  good  pavement  four  are 
required  on  a  gravelly  road.  These  differences  in  the  pulling  power 
required  on  roads  apparently  level  is  in  fact  due  to  the  existence  of 
slight  irregularities,  which  are  in  fact  grades  ;  that  is,  they  require  a 
load  to  be  drawn  up  hill.  When  a  road  has  a  measurable  incline,  the 
effect  is  to  give  a  constant  element  of  grade  or  of  difficulty  which 
may  be  definitely  measured  by  the  following  rule :  to  obtain  the 
power  necessary  to  draw  any  load  up  any  incline,  divide  the  weight 
of  the  load  by  the  length  of  the  road  with  a  rise  of  one  foot. 

It  has  been  experimentally  determined  that  on  a  grade  of  two  and 
one-half  per  centum,  that  is,  with  a  rise  of  two  and  one-half  feet  in 
elevation  in  a  hundred  feet  of  length,  the  load  on  ordinary  wheels 


86  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

will  not  run  down  hill,  or,  in  other  words,  the  team  can  be  stopped 
without  chucking.  This  seems  also  to  be  the  grade  at  which  a  horse ' 
can  pull,  while  moving  at  a  walk,  a  load  of  given  weight  as  easily  as 
he  can  draw  it  at  a«  trot  on  a  level  surface.  On  these  accounts  the 
above-mentioned  grade  has  been  accepted  by  the  best  roadmasters  as 
that  which  should  be  used  wherever  the  expense  involved  in  so  doing 
is  not  likely  to  be  excessive. 

In  a  similar  way,  though  from  less  definite  sources  of  determina- 
tion, engineers  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  grades  as  steep  as 
five  feet  in  the  hundred  are  about  the  maximum  which  should  be 
•  allowed  on  any  high-class  roads. 

It  is  a  well-recognized  fact  that  with  the  increased  steepness  of 
road  the  difficulties  arising  from  the  fall  of  rainwater  over  its  surface 
are  rapidly  augmented  ;  it  is  easily  understood  that  on  a  sloping 
roadway  the  water  flowing  to  the  gutter  tends  to  make  a  longer 
journey  than  on  one  which  follows  a  level.  On  this  account  skilled 
engineers  always  give  a  steeper  crown  on  the  slope  than  on  the  level 
part  of  the  highway  which  they  are  constructing ;  thus  a  crown  of 
one-half  inch  to  the  foot  is  deemed  sufficient  for  roads  which  are  on  a 
horizontal  surface  ;  the  crown  is  increased  to  an  inch  or  an  inch  and 
a  half  where  the  grade  exceeds  five  feet  in  a  hundred. 

The  only  question  concerning  alignment  which  has  other  than  local 
and  immediate  interests  is  the  relation  of  the  line  of  the  way  to 
the  grades  which  are  to  be  encountered  and  to  the  materials  to  be 
used  in  its  construction.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  roads  in 
Massachusetts  have  had  their  position  determined  without  a  proper 
consideration  as  to  the  course  which  it  was  best  for  them  to  follow. 
A  large  part  of  the  cost  which  the  present  ill  condition  of  our  high- 
ways imposes  upon  our  people  is  due  to  bad  defects  of  position. 

Width   of  Highways. 

In  view  of  the  considerable  cost  which  is  necessarily  incurred  in 
building  the  most  economical  roadway,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  impor- 
tance to  determine  the  necessary  width  of  the  section  which  is  to  be 
made  conveniently  passable  by  wheels.  The  result  of  the  inquiries 
made  by  the  commission  is  to  show  that  in  ordinary  country  roads 
the  metal  part  of  the  road  need  not  exceed  fifteen  feet  in  width. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  87 

The  shoulder  of  the  way  on  either  side  should,  however,  have  addi- 
tional width,  and  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet. 

In  the  less-used  parts  of  village  ways  the  streets  should  be  wide 
enough  to  permit  two  teams  to  pass  each  other  while  at  the  same 
point  one  team  is  standing  on  the  side  of  the  roadway ;  for  such 
needs  a  width  of  twenty-one  feet  is  quite  sufficient.  In  the  business 
portion  of  a  village  it  seems  desirable  to  have  the  way  afford  room 
for  two  teams  to  pass  each  other  with  vehicles  standing  against  the 
sidewalk  on  either  hand ;  thirty  feet  in  width  is  sufficient  to  provide 
these  conditions. 

In  the  cities,  and  even  in  the  parts  of  some  of  the  larger  villages 
where  the  amount  of  traffic  is  large,  it  is  necessary  to  increase  the 
width  of  the  way ;  but  the  measure  of  this  has  to  be  determined  by 
the  local  conditions. 

Maintenance  of  Highways. 

The  first  point  concerning  the  system  of  repair's  of  our  highways  to 
which  the  commission  would  draw  attention  is  the  importance  of  im- 
mediately remedying,  as  they  occur,  slight  defects  of  the  way.  As 
soon  as  an  irregularity  has  in  any  way  occurred  in  the  surface  of  the 
road,  the  tendency  of  each  wheel  which  passes  it  is  to  extend  the 
defect ;  thus,  while  the  amount  of  labor  involved  in  effecting  the 
reparation  may  at  first  be  simple,  each  day  of  delay  commonly  adds 
much  to  the  expense  ;  on  this  account  it  is  very  important  to  have 
methods  of  supervision  so  arranged  that  defects  will  be  immediately 
observed  and  at  once  repaired. 

It  appears  to  the  commission  most  desirable  that  the  towns  should 
be  held  legally  responsible  for  all  accidents  to  the  ways  within  their 
limits,  and  that  they  should  be  required  through  their  authorities  to 
care  for  the  work  of  repairing,  so  long  at  least  as  those  reparations 
are  of  a  slight  nature.  In  case  the  towns  fail  of  their  own  motion  to 
do  such  work,  there  should  be  some  means  whereby  they  may  be 
effectively  urged  to  accomplish  it  whenever  attention  to  the  need  has 
been  called  by  the  officers  of  the  State  Board  ;  in  this  way  the  need 
of  having  a  large  force  of  men  under  the  direction  of  the  State  com- 
mission could  be  avoided. 

In  the  course  of  a  term  of  years,  the  length  of  which  will  depend 


88  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

upon  the  plan  of  construction  and  the  amount  of  travel  which  affects 
the  road,  the  way  will  need  to  have  the  surface  which  has  been  worn 
away  replaced.  There  are  two  methods  of  accomplishing  this  end  ; 
the  one  longest  in  use  consists  in  breaking  up  the  roadway  by  picks, 
or  by  spikes  on  the  wheel  of  the  roller ;  new  metal  is  then  put  on  and 
the  surface  again  thoroughly  rolled.  In  a  newer  practice  it  is  becom- 
ing the  custom,  where  the  metal  remaining  on  the  road  at  the  time 
when  repairs  are  needed  does  not  exceed  three  inches  in  depth,  to 
leave  the  latter  undisturbed,  and  to  apply  the  new  material  upon  it, 
this  new  material  to  be  thoroughly  watered  and  rolled  down  in  the 
manner  previously  described. 

In  the  commissioners'  opinion,  the  specific  repairs  of  this  nature 
should  be  done  by  contract.  The  cost  of  such  general  repairs, 
including  the  placing  of  from  two  to  three  inches  of  new  metal  on 
the  road,  may  in  general  be  estimated  at  from  twenty  to  thirty  cents 
per  square  yard.  In  most  cases,  with  a  well-constructed  stone  high- 
way, repairs  of  a  general  sort  will  be  required  at  intervals  of  from 
eight  to  twenty  years,  as  determined  by  the  amount  of  travel  over 
the  way. 

EOUTES  AND  APPROXIMATE  COST  THEREOF. 

In  section  2  of  the  act  establishing  the  commission,  the  phrase 
"  routes  and  the  approximate  cost"  occurs.  It  is  not  quite  clear  to 
the  commission  what  the  Legislature  intended  by  this  clause  to  com- 
mand ;  they  have,  however,  carefully  considered  the  possible  mean- 
ings of  the  phrase,  and  beg  to  report  as  follows. 

So  far  as  relates  to  the  materials  to  be  used  in  construction,  it  is 
the  opinion  of  the  commission  that,  where  it  is  in  anywise  possible, 
macadam  roads  should  be  built,  experience  having  shown  that, 
measured  by  the  term  of  years,  ways  of  this  nature  are  more  econom- 
ical than  any  other,  —  it  being  understood  that  where  the  conditions 
demand  the  peculiar  features  of  the  construction,  the  Telford  founda- 
tion of  the  way  should  be  used.  Details  concerning  the  cost  of  such  con- 
struction are  given  in  the  preceding  sections  of  the  report.  It  may  in 
general,  however,  be  said  that  the  original  cost  per  mile  of  such  road- 
ways laid  down  on  the  line  of  previously  existing  routes  will  be  from 
$2,500  upwards,  according  to  the  amount  of  traffic  which  the  road  is 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  89 

to  be  called  upon  to  endure  and  the  peculiarities  which  may  exist  with 
the  character  of  the  underlying  earth.  Taking  the  Commonwealth 
as  a  whole,  it  seems  likely  that  the  average  cost  of  such  ways  will  be 
about  $4,500  to  $5,500  per  mile. 

So  far  as  the  routes  to  be  selected  for  improvement  are  concerned, 
the  commissioners  beg  to  report  that  they  have  not  been  able 
specifically  to  determine  what  particular  highways  should  be  recom- 
mended for  such  improvement;  they  would  state,  however,  that 
the  total  number  of  miles  of  public  way  in  the  Commonwealth,  out- 
side of  the  cities,  is  about  18,000,  of  which  total  about  1,500  miles 
may  be  considered  as  of  leading  importance  in  the  way  of  intertown 
routes.  In  the  opinion  of  the  commission,  the  improvement  of  this 
length  of  ways  would  provide  a  tolerably  good  system  of  communica- 
tion between  the  centres  of  population,  the  cities  and  towns  of  the 
Commonwealth.  At  an  annual  expense  of  $500,000  it  would  prob- 
ably require  about  fifteen  to  twenty  years  to  bring  this  system  of 
main  highways  into  the  desired  condition.  It  is  probable  that  the 
sum  above  noted  would  also  prove  sufficient  for  all  the  larger  repairs, 
such  as  the  resurfacing  the  ways  which  would  be  from  time  to  time 
called  for.  This  estimate  is  on  the  basis  that  the  ways  have  been 
previously  graded,  and  that  any  alterations  demanded  in  the  align- 
ment of  the  ways  should  be  effected  at  the  cost  of  the  counties. 

NOTE   ON  BRIDGES. 

In  the  act  constituting  the  commission  it  is  not  evident  that  it  was 
intended  to  have  any  study  whatever  given  to  the  bridges  in  the 
Commonwealth.  The  only  mention  made  of  these  structures  is  in 
section  4,  where  it  is  stated  that  "county  commissioners,  boards 
of  selectmen  and  aldermen,  and  other  officers  having  authority  over 
public  ways,  roads  and  bridges  throughout  the  Commonwealth,  shall 
at  reasonable  times,  on  request,  furnish  the  commissioners  any  infor- 
mation required  by  them  concerning  public  ways,  roads  and  bridges 
within  their  jurisdiction."  In  view  of  this  fact,  the  commission  has 
given  only  incidental  attention  to  the  public  bridges  throughout  the 
Commonwealth. 

The  total  number  of  structures  in  the  Commonwealth  which  are 
classed  as  bridges  is  3,950  ;  in  addition  to  this  there  is  a  large  num- 


90  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 

ber  of  culverts,  which,  in  the  ordinary  use  of  the  term  by 
may  not  be  so  classed. 

All  matters  concerning  the  small  culverts,  which  are  intended  to 
carry  the  temporary  stream  of  water  on  its  way  to  a  main  water 
course,  properly  relate  to  questions  of  highway  construction.  Such 
culverts  are  commonly  reckoned  as  part  of  the  ordinary  expense  of 
highway  construction,  and  will  be  so  treated  in  the  estimates  on  cost 
of  building.  The  passages  of  larger  size  which  are  intended  to 
convey  the  road  over  streams  which  are  permanent  may  receive  brief 
consideration. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  present  tendency  is  to  disuse 
wood  for  short  bridges  and  larger  culverts,  and  to  replace  this  mate- 
rial with  stone,  either  in  the  form  of  horizontal  slabs  or  arches, 
both  of  which  forms  of  construction  are  of  a  permanent  nature. 
Experience  seems  to  show  that  for  culverts  of  moderate  size,  vitri- 
fied clay  pipe,  now  much  in  use,  is  well  adapted  to  the  needs. 

As  far  as  the  methods  of  construction  of  bridges  in  Massachusetts 
are  concerned,  the  commission  deems  it  best  to  make  no  report  what- 
ever, the  matter  being  one  of  exceeding  difficulty ;  its  discussion 
would  require  expenditure  of  time  and  money,  which  are  at  the  pres- 
ent time  not  available.  From  an  economic  point  of  view,  however, 
it  may  be  noted  that  the  tax  imposed  upon  many  of  the  towns  in 
this  Commonwealth  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  bridges  which 
do  not  in  the  main  serve  their  own  citizens  is  very  great ;  this  burden 
is  particularly  heavy  on  those  municipalities  which  border  on  the  navi- 
gable tide-waters  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  towns  along  the  Mer- 
rimac  and  other  large  rivers  are  also  subjected  to  a  considerable  tax, 
made  still  more  serious  within  the  navigable  limits  of  those  streams 
by  the  interests  of  commerce,  which  not  only  comes  from  beyond 
their  borders,  but  is  really  of  an  interstate  character. 

In  general,  bridges  on  the  line  of  a  main  highway  are  for  the  use 
of  many  towns  rather  than  for  the  town  in  which  they  may  happen 
to  be  placed,  and  it  is  often  the  case  that  they  are  a  direct  loss  to 
that  town. 

In  view  of  this  fact,  it  would  seem  a  matter  of  justice  that  the 
cost  of  building  and  maintaining  all  bridges  on  main  water  ways 
should  be  borne  directly  by  the  county  or  counties  in  which  they  lie. 


APPENDIX. 


CONTAINING  A  NUMBER  OF  SEPARATE  TABLES  AND  OTHER  SOURCES  OF 
INFORMATION  WHICH  FROM  THEIR  NATURE  HAVE  NOT  BEEN  DEEMED  A 
NECESSARY  PART  OF  THE  FOREGOING  REPORT,  AND  THEREFORE  HAVE 
NOT  BEEN  EMBODIED  IN  IT,  YET  WHICH  WILL  AFFORD  SPECIAL  INFOR- 
MATION OF  MUCH  VALUE  TO  THE  CITIZENS  OF  THE  COMMONWEALTH. 


APPENDIX    A. 


A  request  was  sent  to  all  the  city  engineers  of  Massachusetts  to 
furnish  the  commission  with  descriptions  of  the  methods  used  and 
results  obtained  on  the  highway  work  of  their  several  municipalities. 
Owing  to  the  limited  time  at  the  disposal  of  the  commission,  only 
one  of  these  reports  has  been  secured.  Fortunately  for  the  end  in 
view,  this  concerns  a  city  of  the  rural  type,  where  the  roadways 
afford  excellent  illustrations  of  high-grade  construction. 

REPORT   ON   HIGHWAY   WORK. 

CITY  HALL,  WEST  NEWTON,  MASS.,  Jan.  6,  1893. 
To  the  Honorable  Board  of  Massachusetts  Highway  Commissioners. 

GENTLEMEN  :  —  In  reply  to  your  request  for  information  on  all  kinds 
of  pavements,  gravel  and  macadam  work  with  the  crown,  foundation, 
drainage,  grades,  depth  of  gravel  or  stone,  methods  of  doing  work,  and 
cost  of  different  kinds  of  work  throughout  the  city  of  Newton,  I  here- 
with respectfully  submit  the  following  report  on  the  practice  in  the  city 
of  Newton,  together  with  a  map  of  Newton,  showing  location  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  work. 

The  city  of  Newton  is  situated  from  six  to  twelve  miles  west  of  the 
State  House.  It  has  an  area  of  about  20  square  miles.  It  has  114.2 
miles  of  accepted  streets,  and  about  55.4  miles  of  unaccepted  streets, 
ranging  in  width  from  30  to  70  feet.  It  is  composed  of  fourteen  vil- 
lages, under  one  municipal  government,  and  having  a  population  of 
from  five  hundred  to  five  thousand  each. 

The  main  line  of  the  Boston  &  Albany  Railroad  passes  through  the 
north  section  of  the  city,  and  the  Highlands  branch,  connecting  with 
the  Woonsocket  division  of  the  New  York  &  New  England  Railroad 
at  Cook  Street,  passes  through  the  south  section  of  the  city.  The  two 
sections  ara  connected  by  the  recently  constructed  Newton  circuit  line 
of  the  Boston  &  Albany. 

Three  of  the  villages  have  large  manufacturing  industries,  while  the 
rest  are  what  would  be  called  residential  villages,  which  have  been 
located  and  built  up  about  the  various  stations  on  the  lines  of  railroad 
as  a  centre.  The  central  portion  of  the  city  is  but  sparsely  populated, 


94  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

but  it  is  cut  up  by  main  avenues  connecting  the  various  sections.  But 
a  small  percentage  of  the  streets  are  what  may  be  called  country  roads. 

The  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  highways,  streets  or  roads 
are  under  the  general  supervision  of  a  superintendent  and  the  city 
engineer,  acting  in  a  consulting  or  advising  capacity.  There  are  three 
distinct  foremen,  who  have  the  immediate  supervision,  under  the  super- 
intendent of  streets,  of  from  three  thousand  to  five  thousand  acres  of 
territory,  representing  a  nearly  equal  mileage  of  streets. 

Ledge  or  gravel  lots  of  large  area  have  been  purchased  or  leased  in 
the  various  sections  of  the  city,  so  that  the  haul  for  material  to  any 
one  section  is  rarely  over  a  mile.  The  ledges  of  the  south  section  of 
the  city  are  composed  largely  of  conglomerate,  in  which  the  rounded 
or  angular  stones  form  a  large  percentage  of  the  whole  mass  ;  the 
stones  are  trap  or  granite  in  character,  and  when  broken  make  excel- 
lent roads.  In  the  central  portion  of  the  city  the  ledges  are  largely 
a  green  variety  of  trap,  resembling  Hudson  River  trap  in  hardness, 
but  not  so  desirable.  In  the  north  part  of  the  city  there  are  but  few 
ledges  ;  but  the  gravel  banks  are  full  of  trap  and  granite,  cobble-stones 
of  a  superior  quality. 

Two  of  the  districts  have  two  and  one  district  has  three  stables, 
in  which  are  kept  from  one  to  nine  horses,  or  a  total  of  thirty-six 
horses,  which  are  ready  for  immediate  or  constant  use  for  any  repairs 
which  may  be  needed. 

Wages  paid  per  day  of  nine  hours  are  as  follows :  — 

District  foreman, $3  50  to  $5  00 

Engineer  or  road  roller,         .' 3  00 

Masons, .      3  50 

Pavers,    . 2  50 


Ledgemen,      ...... 
Drivers  (double  team),. 
Drivers  (single  team),  .... 
Sub-foremen  and  graders, 
Laborers,        

.      $2  00  to    2  50 
.      2  25 
.      2  00 
.      2  00 
.       1  75 

The  charges  made  by  the  city  on  the  highway  books  in  determining 
the  cost  of  any  special  work  are,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing :  — 

For  double  team  and  driver  (per  day), $5  00 

For  single  team  and  driver  (per  day), 350 

For  single  load  of  broken  stone  of  26  to  28  feet,  at  crusher,    .        .  105 

For  double  load  of  broken  stone  of  40  to  42  cubic  feet,  at  crusher,  1  75 
For  rubble  stone  for  foundation  for  Telford  road,  per  cubic  yard, 

except  when  obtained  in  work, 50 


IMPROVEMENT   OP   HIGHWAYS. 


95 


At  the  above  rates,  Telford  macadam  roads  12  to  14  inches  deep, 
having  from  8  to  9  inches  of  rubble-stone  foundation  placed,  4  to  6 
inches  of  broken  stone  and  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  of  sur- 
facing material,  have  been  constructed  for  from  63  to  83  cents  per 
square  yard ;  macadam  roads  6  to  8  inches  thick  at  40  to  55  cents 
per  square  yard  ;  macadam  roads  4  to  6  inches  thick  at  25  to  40  cents 
per  square  yard. 

The  stone-breaking  plant  consists  of  one  stationary  and  one  Farrel 
Marsden,  portable,  9  by  15  inches  stone  breaker,  operated  respec- 
tively by  one  Atlas  engine  with  horizontal  boiler,  and  one  portable 
Lidgerwood  double  cylinder  engine  with  vertical  boiler.  The  sta- 
tionary plant  is  placed  near  a  ledge  of  hard  green  trap  stone.  The 
stone  is  drilled  with  a  Rand  drill  (steam)  and  blasted  with  forcite 
powder.  The  drill  is  operated  by  steam  from  a  separate  boiler  ;  the 
stone  is  broken  to  a  size*  to  go  in  the  breaker  by  hand  drilling  or  with 
sledge-hammers,  and  taken  by  horses  and  carts  to  the  breaker,  a 
distance  of  about  five  hundred  feet,  and  delivered  on  a  platform  level 
with  the  top  of  the  hopper.  It  is  fed  into  the  hopper  by  two  laborers. 
From  the  breaker  the  stone  is  delivered  in  four  sizes  into  bins  through 
revolving  cylinders  with  casing  of  perforated  boiler  iron.  The  first 
is  what  is  known  as  dust ;  second  one  inch,  third  two  and  one-half 
inch,  stone ;  fourth,  tailings,  that  have  passed  by  the  meshes  and 
out  at  the  end  of  the  cylinder.  The  portable  crusher  is  operated  at 
the  various  gravel  lots  and  some  of  the  ledges  at  the  south  part  of 
the  city. 

The  following  is  a  record  in  detail  of  the  cost  of  the  various  items 
of  labor  and  material  which  go  to  make  up  the  total  cost  of  breaking 
stone  of  different  classes. 

The  stone  is  measured  in  the  carts,  as  drawn  or  shovelled  from  the 
bins.  The  units  of  weight  of  the  stone  of  the  different  classes  are 
obtained  by  weighing  several  cart-loads  which  have  been  carefully 
measured,  and  found  to  be  as  follows :  — 


Dust  (Ibs.). 

No.  2  (Ibs.). 

No.  3  (ibs.). 

Tailings  (Ibs  ). 

Greenish  trap  rock,  ,  .  j 
Conglomerate,  .  »  .  i 

95| 
101* 

8*1 

881 

87  .7 

91 
94.4 

Cobble-stone,  .  .  -  •  '  •  • 

101£* 

" 

98 

99.6 

*  Dust  and  No.  2  not  separated  by  screening. 

During  the  fall  of  1891  a  careful  record  in  detail  was  kept  of  the 
cost  and  quantity  of  stone  of  various  qualities  broken  with  plant  as 
above  described. 


96 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 


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IMPROVEMENT   OF    HIGHWAYS. 


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100  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

The  volume  and  character  of  the  traffic  over  the  streets  of  New- 
ton has  not  been  such  as  to  warrant  paved  surfaces  except  for  gutters 
or  street  crossings.  Street  gutters  are  usually  laid  from  three  to 
five  feet  wide.  If  laid  to  a  curbstone,  its  slope  is  slightly  in  excess 
of  that  of  the  street,  the  lowest  part  being  next  to  the  curbstone. 
If  laid  to  a  grassed  border,  it  is  laid  with  a  depth  of  from  two  to 
four  inches,  extending  np  slightly  on  the  slope  of  the  border. 

Until  recently  street  gutters  have  been  constructed  with  rounded 
cobble-stones,  obtained  from  the  local  gravel  banks,  laid  on  a  bed 
of  coarse  sand  or  fine  gravel,  and  cost  from  seventy-five  cents  to 
one  dollar  per  square  yard.  The  cost  of  keeping  gutters  of  this 
class  free  from  weeds  is  so  great  that  there  has  been  laid  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  a  tar  concrete  of  superior  quality,  which  has  given 
general  satisfaction,  with  but  little  cost  for  maintenance.  Gutters 
of  this  class  of  an  inferior  quality  are  in  a  fair  condition  after 
twelve  or  fourteen  years  of  use. 

The  laying  of  street  crossings  and  sidewalks  surfaced  with  tar 
concrete  has  been  the  practice  for  some  twenty-two  years.  There 
are  now  laid  in  the  city  about  fifty-two  miles  of  sidewalk  of  this 
class.  The  durability  of  these  sidewalks  depends  upon  the  quality 
of  the  tar  and  the  care  used  in  mixing  with  the  gravel  base.  Some 
of  the  first  sidewalks  laid  are  still  in  fair  condition. 

A  copy  of  the  specifications  for  laying  concrete  sidewalks  and 
street  crossings  I  have  sent  you.  The  cost  as  per  contract  for  1892 
was  as  follows  :  — 

For  laying  tar  concrete  sidewalks  (per  square  yard), .  .  f  0  75 

For  laying  street  crossings  (per  square  yard)>    .  *  1  05 

For  laying  gutters  (per  square  yard),  .     ...--.  .  .  1  15 

For  surfacing  concrete  sidewalks,  one  coat, .        .  .  40 

For  surfacing  concrete  sidewalks,  two  coats,        .  .  ,  -•'  .  50 

For  surfacing  concrete  crossings,  one  coat,  .        .  .  .  58 

For  surfacing  concrete  crossings,  two  coats,         .  •" , "%  •  65 

In  addition  to  the  above  should  be  added  the  cost  of  grading  and 
preparing  the  sidewalk  or  street  to  receive  the  surfacing  material, 
which  is  performed  by  day  work,  at  an  average  cost  of  about  ten 
cents  per  square  yard. 

The  streets  are  constructed  with  either  gravel  macadam  or  Telford- 
macadam  road-beds.  Gravel  road-beds  are  maintained  in  streets 
upon  which  the  travel  is  small  in  volume.  As  the  amount  of  travel 
increases  and  the  surface  of  the  street  wears  off,  it  is  repaired  or 
rebuilt  with  a  macadam  surface.  The  thickness  of  the  macadam 
surfacing  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  travel  and  the  founda- 


IMPROVEMENT   OF    HIGHWAYS.  101 

tion  under  it ;  it  is  usually  from  four  to  eight  inches  in  depth. 
Tel  ford-macadam  road-beds  are  constructed  on  streets  upon  which 
the  travel  is  large  in  volume  and  heavy  in  character,  or  the  founda- 
tion under  the  road-bed  wet  or  quaggy. 

The  question  of  the  availability  of  and  the  means  for  handling 
economically  materials  of  different  classes  and  qualities  affects 
largely  the  decision  as  to  the  character  of  the  road-bed  to  be  made. 

It  is  desirable  to  reduce  the  grades  of  the  streets  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  laying  out  of  new  streets  with  grades  exceeding  five 
per  cent,  is  discouraged,  although  sometimes  difficult  to  avoid. 

The  standard  cross-section  of  a  road  as  adopted  in  Newton  is 
shown  on  an  accompanying  cross-section  plan,  with  the  slopes  of 
one-half  inch  per  foot  for  both  sidewalk  and  road-bed. 

In  practice  the  crown  of  the  streets  with  less  than  three  per  cent, 
grade  is  reduced,  and  increased  when  the  grade  is  over  four  per  cent. 
In  all  cases  the  crown  should  be  greater  than  the  longitudinal  slopes, 
in  order  to  shed  quickly  to  the  gutters  the  water  falling  upon  the 
street. 

No  general  set  of  specifications  can  be  made  for  the  construction 
of  all  classes  of  road-beds,  or  for  each  particular  class,  as  each 
would  have  to  be  studied  by  itself,  and  modifications  made  to  take 
advantage  of  the  local  conditions. 

The  following  is  a  form  of  contract  and  specifications  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  new  street,  which  provides  for  a  gravel  road-bed,  a 
drain  in  which  to  take  off  the  surface  water,  and  so  laid  as  to  inter- 
cept the  ground  water,  thereby  drying  out  the  foundation  of  the 
road-bed. 

CITY   OF   NEWTON. 

CONTRACT  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  BUILDING  STREET, 

FROM  STREET  TO  STREET,  ABOUT 

FEET. 
This  agreement,  made  and  concluded  this  day  of 

by  of  the  city  of  Newton,  county  of  Middlesex 

and  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  as  part      of  the  first  part,  and 
of  as  part      of  the  second  part,  wit- 

nesseth :  — 

That  the  said  part     of  the  first  part,  in  consideration  of  the  covenants  and 
agreement  hereinafter  mutually  entered  into,  does  for  himself,  his  execu- 
tors and  administrators,  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with  said  part     of  the 
second  part,  that    he    shall  and  will  in  a  good  and  workmanlike  manner,  at 
own  proper  cost  and  expense,  according  to  the  best  of  art  and 

ability,  do  and  perform  all  work,  and  provide  all  material  required  for  the 
work  hereinafter  named,  in  accordance  with  the  plans  and  directions  made, 
and  to  be  made,  from  time  to  time,  as  the  work  proceeds. 


102  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 


SPECIFICATIONS. 

1.  The  contractor  is  to  furnish  all  material,  labor  and  tools,  except  as 
herein  otherwise  specified,  necessary  to  the  full  completion  and  construc- 
tion of  the  street,  drain  and  catch-basins,  in  accordance  with  these  specifi- 
cations. 

2.  The  street  is  to  be  built  to  a  width  of  feet,  and  to  conform 
accurately  to  a  cross-section  plan  attached  hereto. 

3.  The  site  of  the  street  is  first  to  be  cleared  for  its  entire  length  of  all 
stumps,  roots,  brush,  and  of  all  trees  except  those  that  may  be  designated 
for  preservation. 

4.  Such  a  portion  of  the  trees  and  brush  as  may  be  considered  by  the 
engineer  suitable  for  firewood  shall   be  cut  into  four-foot  lengths  and 
properly  piled  outside  of  the  line  of  the  road,  as  directed.     All  bushes, 
limbs  of  trees,  stumps  and  roots  so  removed  shall  be  placed  outside  of  the 
line  of  the  road,  as  directed,  and  burnt.    No  roots  or  stumps  will  be  allowed 
as  filling  on  any  part  of  the  work. 

5.  All  trees  that  have  been  saved  are  to  be  properly  protected  from 
injury  by  teams,  or  otherwise,  during  the  progress  of  the  work. 

6.  All  loam  and  loamy  material  is  to  be  removed  from  the  surface  of 
the  ground  within  the  lines  of  the  street. 

7.  Such  ledge  and  boulders  as  may  be  necessary  shall  be  removed  to 
the  sub-grade,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  engineer. 

8.  The  street  shall  then  be  graded  accurately  to  a  sub-grade  eight  inches 
below  the  finished  grade,  as  shown  on  a  profile  and  cross-section  of  said 
street,  made  by  the  city  engineer  of  said  city  of  Newton. 

9.  In  all  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  fill  in,  the  contractor  shall  fill 
with  such  material  as  is  satisfactory  to  the  engineer. 

10.  The  sub-grade  of  the  sidewalk  shall  be  at  least  four  inches  below 
the  finished  grade. 

11.  A  coating  of  good  binding  gravel,  of  a  quality  approved  by  the 
engineer,  shall  then  be  added,  and  graded  to  conform  to  the  finished  grade 
of  said  street,  except  upon  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk,  where  loam  shall  be 
placed,  as  shown  on  the  cross-section  hereto  annexed. 

12.  The  surface  of  the  street  as  sub-graded,  and  each  successive  layer 
of  gravel  or  stone  surfacing,  shall  be  thoroughly  wet,  if  necessary,  and 
thoroughly  compacted  by  being  rolled  over  with  a  ring  horse-roller  weigh- 
ing not  less  than  4,300  pounds,  or  with  a  steam  road-roller ;  and  all  depres- 
sions in  the  surface  or  sub-surface  resulting  from  said  rolling  shall  be 
filled  with  suitable  material,  and  compacted  by  the  continued  use  of  the 
road-roller,  until  the  wheels  of  a  heavily  loaded  wagon  will  not  leave  a  rut 
or  depression  on  the  finished  surface. 

13.  Where  cutting  is  to  be  done,  the  earth  is  to  slope  upon  the  adjoin- 
ing land,  upon  a  slope  of  one  and  one-half  horizontal  to  one  vertical. 

14.  In  case  of  filling,  the  earth  shall  be  sloped  upon  the  adjoining  land 
upon  a  slope  of  two  horizontal  to  one  vertical.    Said  slope  both  in  cuts  and 
fills  shall  be  covered  with  at  least  twelve  inches  of  good  loam,  so  applied 
as  to  insure  against  slipping,  and  carefully  rolled  with  a  hard  roller. 
Where  necessary,  the  earth  is  to  be  removed  to  the  proper  sub-grade  for 
the  slopes, 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  103 

15.  The  loam  filling  along  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk  is  to  be  covered 
with  good  fresh  sods,  laid  in  the  best  manner. 

16.  The  slopes  at  the  side  of  the  streets  are  to  be  thoroughly  sown  with 
the  best  lawn  grass-seed,  mixed  with  a  proper  proportion   of  the   best 
bnrley,  and  properly  rolled.     The  sowing  of  the  seed  and  the  laying  of  the 
sods  are  to  be  done  at  such  times  and  seasons  as  shall  be  directed  by  the 
engineer. 

17.  The  contractor  shall  construct  catch-basins,  man-holes,  and  a  drain 
shall  be  laid  of  such  size  and  in  such  location  as  shown  on  the  plan  and 
profile  of  said  street. 

18.  All  drain  pipe  must  be  first-quality  salt-glazed  vitrified  clay  socket 
pipe,  equal  in  quality  to  the  best  Ohio  River  or  Akron  pipe ;  and  to  be  laid 
with  uncemented  joints,  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  lines  and  grades  of 
the  engineer. 

19.  The  contractor  shall  fill  the  trench  about,  and  at  least  four  inches 
above,  the  top  of  the  pipe  with  a  screened  gravel  from  one-quarter  to  three- 
quarters  inch  in  dimension,  which  shall   be  thoroughly  compacted  about 
the  pipe. 

20.  The  rest  of  the  trench  shall  be  filled  to  within  one  foot  of  the  sur- 
face with  clean  screened  gravel  not  exceeding  three  inches  in  diameter, 
which  shall  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  jute  bagging,  or  sod  laid  with  the 
grass  side  down,  and  the  top  foot  of  the  trench  will  be  filled  with  gravel. 

21.  The  man-holes  shall  be  built  of  the  best  quality  hard-burnt  sewer 
brick,  wall  to  be  eight  inches  in  thickness,  laid  up  in  cement  mortar,  one 
part  American  hydraulic  cement  and  two  parts  of  clean  screened  sharp 
sand,  to  be  four  feet  in  diameter  at  the  bottom,  and  provided  with  the 
standard  iron  man-hole  cover  used  by  city  of  Newton. 

22.  The  catch-basins  shall  be  built  of  the  best  quality  hard-burnt  sewer 
brick,  wall  to  be  eight  inches  in  thickness,  to  be  laid  up  in  cement  mortar, 
one  part  American  hydraulic  cement  and  two  parts  clean  screened  sharp 
sand,  to  be  six  and  one-half  feet  deep,  to  be  five  feet  in  diameter  at  the 
bottom,  and  provided  with  a  No.  18  Concord  grate.     Each  basin  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  main  drain  by  an  eight-inch  pipe.     Bottom  of  basins  to  be 
paved  with  brick  laid  dry. 

23.  All  said  work  to  be  completed  in  a  thorough  and  workmanlike 
manner,  in  accordance  with  the  lines  and  grades  furnished  by  the  engineer, 
to  be  satisfactory  to  and  with  the  approval  of  the  said  engineer. 

24.  No  claim  for  extra  work  shall  be  made  unless  the  same  shall  be 
done  in  pursuance  of  a  written  order  from  the  engineer,  and  the  value  of 
any  extra  work  is  to  be  determined  by  the  said  engineer. 

25.  The  work  under  this  contract  is  to  be  commenced  within  ten  days 
of  the  award,  and  is  to  be  completed  on  or  before 

26.  The  engineer  will  make  monthly  estimates  of  the  amount  of  work 
done  under  this  contract  during  the  preceding  month ;  upon  the  delivery  of 
this  certificate  the  contractor  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  ninety  per  cent,  of 
the  value  of  the  work  certified  to  have  been  performed. 

27.  It  is  further  mutually  agreed  that  whenever  this  contract,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  said  engineer,  shall  be  completely  performed  upon  the  part 


104:  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 

of  the  said  contractor,  he  shall  certify  the  same  to  the  said  part  of  the 
second  part,  who  shall  pay  the  contractor,  within  thirty  days  after  receiv- 
ing said  certificate,  the  amount  that  may  be  due,  excepting  therefrom  such 
sum  or  sums  as  may  be  lawfully  retained  to  protect  said  part  of  the 
second  part  from  liens  or  attachment ;  that  nothing  herein  contained  shall 
be  construed  to  affect  the  right  hereby  reserved  of  said  part  of  the 
second  part  to  reject  the  whole  or  any  portion  of  said  work,  should  said 
certificate  be  found  or  known  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  forms  of  this 
agreement,  or  otherwise  improperly  given. 

28.  In  consideration  of  the  full  and  proper  completion  of  the  work,  the 
part  of  the  first  part  agree  to  receive,  and  the  part  of  the  second  part 
agree  to  give,  the  following  price  for  building  said  street,  including  clear- 
ing, grubbing,  grading,  learning  and  sodding,  also  including  said  drain, 
man-holes  and  catch-basins,  the  sum  of  dollars. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF  the  parties  hereto  have  signed  and  sealed  this  con- 
tract this  day  of  A.D. 

(Signed) 

City  of  Newton,  by  its  mayor, 
Witness, 

The  above  specifications  can  be  adapted  to  all  classes  of  road 
construction,  by  making  the  unit  depth  of  surfacing  material 
required  the  depth  below  the  finished  surface  the  road  shall  be 
sub-graded. 

If  a  macadam  road-bed  of  sufficient  depth  is  required,  the  sur- 
facing can  be  put  on  in  two  layers,  and  tailings  from  the  screen  at 
the  stone  breaker,  or  an  inferior  quality  of  stone,  may  be  used  for 
the  bottom  course  ;  and  clause  11  of  the  specifications  would  read  :  "A 
layer  not  more  than  four  inches  thick  of  tailings  from  the  screen  at 
the  stone  breaker,  or  screened  stone  of  approved  quality  having  no 
dimensions  over  four  inches,  shall  then  be  added.  After  being  com- 
pacted by  the  road-roller,  a  layer  of  broken  stone  or  screened  gravel 
stone  of  approved  quality,  not  more  than  two  and  one-half  inches 
and  not  less  than  one  inch  in  dimension,  shall  then  be  added,  and 
the  surface  graded  to  conform  to  the  finished  surface  of  the  street, 
except  on  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk,  where  loam  shall  be  placed  as 
shown  on  the  cross-section  hereto  annexed." 

If  a  Telford-macadam  road-bed  is  desired,  the  first  part  of  clause 
8  in  the  specifications  would  read  :  "  The  street  shall  then  be  graded 
accurately  to  a  sub-grade  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  below  the  finished 
grade,  as  shown  on  the  profile  and  cross-section  of  said  street,  made 
by  the  city  engineer  of  the  said  city  of  Newton." 

Clause  11  of  the  specifications  would  read:  "A  layer  of  ledge 
stone  of  approved  quality,  eight  or  nine  inches  high,  four  to  eight 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  105 

inches  thick  and  eight  to  fourteen  inches  long,  shall  be  placed 
on  the  edge,  bedded  on  the  widest  edge,  and  placed  closely  together 
in  courses  set  at  right  angles  to  the  curb  line.  The  surface  to  be 
levelled  off,  and  the  stone  wedged  securely  together  by  the  use  of 
stone  hammers." 

The  clause  for  macadam  surfacing  on  the  Tel  ford  foundation  may 
be  the  same  as  for  macadam  road-bed.  When  the  stone  or  gravel 
will  not  bind  by  continued  rolling  over  them  without  a  binding  sur- 
facing material,  the  following  clause  may  be  added  after  clause  11  of 
the  specifications  :  "A  thin  coating  of  hard  pan  or  binding  gravel  of 
approved  quality,  which  will  make  a  coating  after  being  rolled  not 
exceeding  one-quarter  inch  in  thickness,  shall  be  added  to  the  top 
layer  of  stone  or  gravel.  To  this  a  single  layer  of  stone  screenings, 
not  exceeding  one  inch  in  dimension,  shall  be  added,  and  the  whole 
thoroughly  wet.  This  gives  a  smooth  and  durable  surface,  and  we 
find  it  to  be  one  of  the  best  on  streets  having  somewhat  sharp 
grades." 

Where  a  drain  for  intercepting  the  ground  water  only  is  necessary, 
an  unglazed  clay  tile  of  size  from  one-half  to  six  inches  in  diame- 
ter, depending  upon  the  distance  necessary  to  lay  without  an  outlet, 
may  be  substituted  for  the  vitrified  clay  pipe  of  larger  size,  and  the 
depth  to  be  laid  below  the  surface  may  be  reduced  to  three  feet. 

I  prefer  in  practice  a  depth  of  five  feet  of  trench,  from  being  more 
nearly  below  the  frost  line,  as  giving  more  satisfactory  results. 

For  a  number  of  years  previous  to  1891  the  streets  were  maintained 
and  cleaned  by  the  district  system.  They  were  cleaned  three  or  four 
times  a  year,  usually  repaired  in  spring  and  fall.  The  method  em- 
ployed gave  fairly  satisfactory  results.  In  1891  the  section  system  of 
maintaining  and  cleaning  the  streets  was  tried.  Briefly  described, 
the  method  employed  is  as  follows  :  — 

Plans  showing  the  streets  of  the  city  were  prepared.  They  were 
classed  as  principal  and  secondary  streets  and  country  roads,  and  were 
shown  on  the  plans  in  a  color  for  each  class.  Twenty-two  and  four- 
tenths  miles  of  the  principal  streets  were  selected  upon  which  to 
make  a  trial  of  the  method  proposed,  and  were  divided  into  ten  sec- 
tions, in  such  a  way  that  the  work  on  each  would  be  as  equally 
divided  as  possible ;  that  is,  sections  having  the  most  traffic  and 
wear,  and  those  in  the  least  perfect  condition,  were  selected  with  less 
superficial  area  to  be  cared  for  than  those  sections  recently  put  in 
condition  and  receiving  less  traffic. 

The  men  assigned  to  each  section  were  selected  from  the  most 
reliable  and  efficient  on  the  force,  and  were  called  section  men,  and 
remained  under  the  charge  of  the  district  foreman.  Their  duty  was 


106  IMPROVEMENT   OF  HIGHWAYS. 

to  keep  their  section  in  proper  condition  ;  that  is,  to  keep  the  gutter 
clean  of  weeds,  trim  the  grass,  patch  all  gullies  and  ruts  in  the  road- 
bed, look  after  the  sidewalks,  etc.,  in  fact,  do  all  the  small  repairs 
necessary  as  soon  as  needed,  the  regular  street  force  being  called 
upon  only  for  large  repairs  and  renewal  of  road-beds,  etc. 

They  were  not  to  be  called  off  from  their  regular  work  except  on 
emergencies,  such  as  snow-storms,  etc.,  when  the  entire  force  are 
needed  clearing  the  roads.  Each  man  was  supplied  with  a  wheel- 
barrow, a  pick,  a  shovel  and  wooden  rake,  hoe,  lantern,  sickle, 
edging  knife  and  cord  line.  The  wheelbarrows  were  painted  blue, 
with  the  section  number  clearly  painted  on  the  handle,  so  as  to  be 
easily  seen  by  the  foreman  or  superintendent  when  on  the  rounds  of 
inspection. 

At  convenient  places  on  each  section  piles  of  crushed  stone  and 
gravel  were  located,  from  which  material  was  obtained  for  patching 
up  whatever  holes  or  ruts  which  might  appear  in  the  road-bed  or  in 
the  sidewalks.  The  other  streets  were  cleared  up  at  stated  intervals 
by  the  rest  of  the  highway  force. 

The  improved  appearance  and  condition  of  the  streets  thus  cared 
for  was  quickly  noticed  by  the  citizens.  The  men  appeared  to  take 
a  pride  in  their  work,  and  their  efforts  were  attended  with  nearly 
equal  results,  considering  the  varying  condition,  namely,  original 
condition,  of  the  road-bed  ;  level  or  hilly  streets,  stone  curbing  or 
sodded  edging,  concrete  or  cobble-paved  gutters,  amount  of  traffic, 
etc. 

The  total  expenditure  in  1891  by  this  method  was  $4,414.14,  or  a 
little  less  than  one  cent  a  square  yard  of  road-bed,  exclusive  of  side- 
walks cared  for  on  each  section. 

The  system  was  extended  in  1892  by  the  addition  of  ten  section 
men  to  the  force,  making  a  total  of  45.5  miles,  or  787,230  square 
yards,  of  road-bed,  exclusive  of  sidewalk,  thus  cared  for ;  and  it  is 
anticipated  that  in  a  short  time  all  of  the  streets  will  be  cared  for  in 
this  way. 

The  watering  of  streets  contributes  largely  to  comfort  in  their  use 
and  economy  in  their  maintenance.  The  work  is  performed  in 
the  following  manner  :  — 

The  city  contracts  with  various  contractors  for  watering  the  streets, 
at  the  rate  of  $100  per  month  per  cart.  They  keep  the  sections  to 
which  each  cart  is  assigned  well  watered  and  free  from  dust.  The 
watering  of  the  streets  begins  as  early  in  April  as  may  be  necessary, 
and  continues  until  the  first  of  December.  During  the  months  of 
April  and  November  the  streets  require  watering  but  few  days ;  the 
payment  for  these  months  is  based  on  day-service  rather  than  month- 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  107 

service.     The  number  of  teams  contracted  for  is  14  ;  the  number  of 
miles  of  street  watered  is  40.5. 

In  the  city  of  Newton  the  actual  frontage  available  for  assess- 
ment is  72  frontage  miles,  or  36  street  miles  ;  there  being  4.5  miles 
of  street  made  up  of  frontage  not  available  for  assessment,  and 
street  intersections  which  have  no  frontage.  The  watering  depart- 
ment are  paid  a  gross  sum  of  $2,100  for  water.  The  cost  during 
the  year  for  teams  was  89,238.62,  and  for  clerical  hire  $199.95, 
making  a  total  expenditure  for  watering  streets  of  $11,538.57.  This 
sum,  divided  equally  by  the  number  of  miles  of  street  whose  front- 
age is  available  for  assessment,  will  equal  $326  per  mile,  making  a 
cost  of  6  cents  per  foot  of  street  available  for  frontage  assessment, 
and  3  cents  per  foot  of  frontage.  It  is  estimated  that  the  city  pays 
about  half,  or,  in  order  that  there  should  be  no  legal  question  raised, 
the  assessment  made  on  the  estates  was  at  the  rate  of  1^  cents  a 
front  foot,  or  a  sum  estimated  not  to  exceed  60  per  cent,  of  the  cost. 
At  the  above  rate  of  assessment,  the  net  income  was  49  per  cent,  of 
the  cost. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

ALBERT  F.  NOTES, 

City  Engineer. 


108 


IMPEOVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 


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IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  109 


APPENDIX     B. 


CITY     OF     NEWTON. 

SPECIFICATIONS.  —  CONCRETE  SIDEWALKS  AND  CROSSINGS. 

1.  The  work  consists  in  laying  new  tar  concrete  sidewalks,  street 
crossings  and  gutters,  and  repairing  old  work,  in  the  streets  of  the 
city  of  Newton,  Mass.,  during  the  year  1892,  as  may  be  from  time 
to  time  required  by  the  highway  committee. 

2.  The  areas  ordered  to  be  concreted  will  be  excavated  and  pre- 
pared by  the  superintendent  of  streets,  ready  to  receive  the  concrete. 

3.  The  contractor  to  furnish  all  transportation,  labor,  tools  and 
materials  for  preparing,  heating,  mixing,  spreading  and  rolling  the 
concrete,  and  finishing  the  surface  ready  for  use. 

4.  The  materials  used  for  concrete  to  be  coarse,  clean  gravel,  clean 
screened  sharp  sand,  the  best  quality  of  coal  tar  distillate,  containing 
its  original  oils  free  from  all  petroleum  compounds  or  water,  and  the 
best  quality  pitch,  mixed  so  as  to  form  the  best  as  paving  cement, 
and  the  whole  mixed  in  proportions  to  make  the  best  quality  durable 
concrete. 

5.  Each  class  of  work  to  consist  of  three  layers  :  a  foundation  of 
cobbles  or  broken   stone  and  tar  composition  ;  a  binding  course  of 
fine  gravel  and  tar  composition ;  a  wearing  surface  of  sand  and  tar 
composition,  —  each  layer  to  be  thoroughly  consolidated  and  rolled 
separately. 

6.  Foundation.  —  The   foundation   course   to   consist   of    coarse 
gravel  from  two  inches  to  four  inches  in  greatest  diameter,  according 
to  the  class    of   work,  thoroughly  coated  with  hot  coal-tar  paving 
cement  before  the  delivery  on  the  work,   spread  evenly  and    well 
tamped  and  rolled  until  the  stone  cease  to  creep  under  the   roller, 
and  are  thoroughly  compacted. 

7.  Binding  Course.  —  The  binding   course  to    consist  of    clean 
screened  gravel  not  exceeding  one  inch  in  greatest  diameter,  heated 
to  230°  to  250°  F.,  and  mixed  while  hot  with  hot  coal-tar  composi- 
tion, in  proportion  of   about  one  gallon  composition   to  one  cubic 
foot  of  gravel.      This  material   to   be  spread  while  fresh  over  the 


110  IMPKOVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

foundation  course  already  prepared,  to  a  depth  of  two  inches,  well 
tamped  and  rolled  down  into  the  foundation  course. 

8.  Wearing  Surface.  —  The  wearing  surface  to  be  composed  of 
clean   screened  sharp   sand,  free  from  all  vegetable  matter,  clay, 
loam  or  quicksand  ;  of  such  size  that  not  over  twenty  per  cent,  shall 
remain  on  a  sieve  of  twenty  meshes  to  the  inch,  or  more  than  five 
per  cent,  will  pass  through  a  sieve  of  sixty  meshes  to  an  inch,  about 
sixty  per  cent,  to  be  coarser  than  forty  meshes  to  an  inch.    This  sand 
to  be  thoroughly  heated  and  mixed  with  coal-tar  composition  previously 
heated  in  a  separate  caldron,  in  the  proportions  of  eighty-six  per  cent, 
sand  and  thirteen  to  fifteen  per  cent,  composition.     This  material  to 
be  spread  while  hot  over  the  binding  course,  in  an  even  layer,  and 
thoroughly  compressed  and   rolled  before  cooling.     The  surface  will 
then  be  sprinkled  with  fine  sand  or  hydraulic  cement,  well  rolled  in. 

9.  All  materials  used,  as  well  as  the  plant  and  method  of  manu- 
facture, will  be  subjected  to  the  inspection  and  approval  of  the  city 
engineer  and  superintendent  of  streets,  who  may  order  changes  in 
the  proportions  of  the  compositions  as  occasion  may  require. 

10.  Sidewalks.  —  These   are   to   be   laid  out  with  a  foundation 
course  of  not  less  than  two  and  one-half  inches  in  thickness,  having 
no  gravel  over  two  inches  in  greatest  diameter.     The  binding  course 
to  be  not  less   than  one-half  inch  thick,  unless  otherwise  directed. 
The  concrete  to  extend  from  face  of  property  line,  fence  or  wall  to 
the  inside  line  of  curbstone,  or  sod  line  where  there  is  no  curbstone, 
or  sod  line  where  there  is  no  curbstone  on  the  walk. 

11.  Street  Crossings.  —  These  are  to  have  a  foundation  course  of 
four  inches,  to  extend  six  inches  each  side  beyond  the  other  courses. 
The  binding  course  to  be  not  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness,  and  the 
wearing  surface  to  be  not  less  than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  thick- 
ness.    When   the   crossing  is  properly  rolled,  the   contractor  shall 
repack  the  road  material  over  the  projecting  sides  of  the  foundation 
course,  and  roll  it  down  even  with  the  crossing. 

12.  Gutters.  —  Incase  of  gutters,  the  foundation  course  of  not 
less  than   four  inches   will   extend   six   inches  beyond  the  surface 
courses  toward  the  street,  and  the  tar  composition  for  the  binding 
course  and  the  one  and  one-half  inch  wearing  surface  will  contain  more 
pitch,  and  be  mixed  so   as  to  give  a  harder  surface,  to  stand  the 
wear  of  heavy  truck  wheels ;  and  the  surface  to  receive  an  additional 
wash  of  hot  tar  composition.     The  road  metal  to  be   replaced  over 
the  projecting  foundation  course,  and  to  be  rolled  as  in  case  of  cross- 
ings.    The  cross-section   of  the  gutter  to  be  dished  without  exag- 
gerating the  slope  from  the  centre  of  the  street.     Where  no  curbing 
is  set,  the  foundation  course  to  extend  also  under  the  sods  as  well 
as  the  road-bed. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  Ill 

13.  Measurements. — The   contractor  shall  furnish  the  city  en- 
gineer, as  required,  a  list  of  the  concrete  sidewalks,  crossings  and 
gutters  completed,  and  the  city  engineer  shall  cause  the  same  to  be 
measured.     Unless  otherwise  ordered,  crossings  will  be  built  eight 
feet  wide  on  the  foundation  course,  and  nine  feet  will  be  allowed  for 
measurement.     Gutters  will  be  built  four  feet  wide  on  the  surface, 
and  four  and  one-half  feet  on  the  foundation  course,  and  will  be 
measured  as  four  and  one-half  feet  wide.     Sidewalks,  unless  other- 
wise directed,  will  be  built  and  be  measured  according  to  the  width 
of  the  streets,  as  follows  :  — 

30  foot  street,  with  curbing,  sidewalk  4  feet  6  inches ;  without  curbing,  3 

feet  C  inches 
35  foot  street,  with  curbing,  sidewalk  5  feet  4  inches ;  without  curbing,  4 

feet  4  inches. 
40  foot  street,  with  curbing,  sidewalk  6  feet;  without  curbing,  5  feet  6 

inches. 
50  foot  street,  with  curbing,  sidewalk  7  feet  8  inches ;  without  curbing,  7 

feet. 
60  foot  street,  with  curbing,  sidewalk  9  feet  6  inches;  without  curbing,  8 

feet  6  inches. 

No  allowance  will  be  made  where  the  concrete  has  been  run  out  over 
these  widths,  owing  to  carelessness  or  the  omission  of  guide  strips  by 
the  contractor  ;  but  actual  widths  will  be  taken  wherever  the  concrete 
has  not  been  carried  out  to  the  full  width.  All  repairs  to  be  measured 
actual  size  of  patch  as  marked  out  by  pick  before  laying. 

14.  Repairs.  —  These  are  to  be  made  on  the  different  class  of 
work  as  may  be  required,  and  to  consist  either  of  skim  coat,  that  is, 
a  binding  course  and  a  wearing  surface.     In  doing  this  work  the  old 
surface  will  be  painted  over  with  a  light  coat  of  tar  oil,  in  order  to 
soften  it  up,  so  it  will  bind  with  the  new  material. 

15.  The  prices  for  the  work  are  to  be  made  out  per  square  yard 
for  each  class,  as  follows  :  — 

Sidewalks,  new  work, 

repairs,  skim  coat,    . 

repairs,  two-layer  work, 

Crossings,  new  work, 

repairs,  one-layer  work, 

repairs,  two-layer  work, 

Gutters,  new  work, 

16.  Settlement.  — All  work  on  the  streets  to  be  done  by  orders  of 
the  highway  committee.     All  new  sidewalks  to  be  paid  one-half  by 
the  city,  and  the  other  half  by  the  abutters  that  have  petitioned  for  the 


112  IMPROVEMENT   OP   HIGHWAYS. 

work  ;  this  half  to  be  collected  by  the  contractor.  If,  after  due  appli- 
cation, the  bill  is  not  paid  by  the  abutter  within  one  year,  the  city 
will,  at  the  request  of  the  highway  committee,  pay  the  bill  and  collect 
it  from  the  estate.  All  the  repair  work  and  all  work  on  crossings 
and  gutters  are  paid  by  the  city. 

17.  Payments.  — At  the  end  of  each  month  the  city  engineer  shall 
cause  all  the  work  finished  during  the  mouth  to  be  measured,  and 
shall  issue  a  certificate  of  the  measurements  and  the  amount  due  to 
the  contractor,  and  forward  a  copy  to  the  contractor  and  to  the  high- 
way committee  for  approval.     All  bills  approved  will  be  paid  by  the 
city  treasurer  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  next  succeeding  month. 

18.  All  work  to  be  performed  in  the  order  and  at  the  time  that 
the  superintendent  of  streets  may  notify  the  contractor.     All  work  to 
be  done  to  his  satisfaction,  and  satisfactory  to  the  city  engineer. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  113 


APPENDIX    C. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  A  TELFORD-MACADAM  ROAD,  AS  CONSTRUCTED  IN 
HlNGHAM,  MASS.,  BY  A.  H.  KlMBALL,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF 
STREETS. 

The  part  of  the  road  described  passed  through  a  cut  where  the 
land  rose  on  either  side,  an'l  the  ground  was  a  heavy  wet  clay. 

A  drain  twelve  inches  square  was  first  constructed,  the  bottom  of 
which  w,as  about  three  feet  below  the  surface,  in  the  centre  of 
the  proposed  street.  This  drain  was  made  of  rough  slabs  of  stone 
on  the  two  sides  and  top.  The  depth  from  the  top  of  the  covering 
stone  to  the  bottom  was  about  twenty  inches.  Coarse  field  stones 
from  five  to  sixteen  inches  in  diameter  were  tilled  in  over  the  drain, 
eight  inches  thick  in  the  centre  of  the  roadway  and  ten  feet  wide ; 
this  was  then  rolled  with  a  fifteen-ton  steam  roller  until  no  further  set- 
tlement occurred  ;  the  grade  and  cross-section  were  maintained  as  the 
work  of  rolling  progressed.  The  soil  on  both  sides  of  the  coarse 
stone  was  then  removed  to  the  full  width  of  twenty-five  feet,  and  the 
bed  so  prepared  carefully  rolled  with  the  fifteen-ton  steam  roller. 
Metal,  from  which  had  been  removed  all  that  would  pass  through  a 
one-inch  screen,  was  then  laid  on  to  a  depth  of  six  inches  in  the 
centre  of  the  roadway,  thinning  to  two  inches  at  the  sides.  After 
this  had  been  carefully  rolled,  metal  from  three-eighths  inch  to  one 
inch  in  diameter  was  laid  on,  to  a  depth  of  one  inch  in  the  centre 
of  the  roadway,  thinning  out  to  nothing  at  ten  feet  on  each  side  of  the 
centre.  The  whole  surface  of  the  road  was  then  spread  with  sand, 
watered  and  rolled,  until  all  voids  in  the  stone  were  filled.  Screen- 
ings from  the  crusher  which  had  been  passed  through  a  three-eighths 
inch  screen  were  then  laid  on  to  the  depth  of  about  one  inch  over  the 
surface  of  the  whole  road ;  these  were  thoroughly  watered  and  rolled 
with  the  steam  roller  until  they  formed  a  hard,  smooth  surface. 

The  centre  of  the  finished  road  was  twelve  and  one-half  inches 
above  the  gutters. 

The  coarse  stone  used  was  brought  from  fields  near  the  work  ;  they 
cost  thirty-four  cents  per  load  and  forty-one  and  two-thirds  cents  a 
load  for  teaming.  The  broken  stone  was  bought  at  one  dollar  and 


114  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 

twenty-five  cents  a  ton  at  the  crusher,  and  was  teamed  about  one  and 
one-quarter  miles.  The  sand  cost  sixty-two  and  one-half  cents  a 
double  load,  delivered  on  the  road. 

The  total  length  of  the  road,  of  which  the  above  forms  a  part, 
was  2,882  feet ;  440  feet  of  it  was  .built  as  above  described  (see 
diagram),  the  balance  was  constructed  on  top  of  the  old  road  surface. 

The  cost  of  the-  completed  work  was  as  follows  :  — - 

Average  cost  per  mile,        .        . _r '-.'•'. ";''••        .        .  $5,46500 

Average  cost  per  linear  foot,      .....  1  03£ 

Cost  per  square  yard  macadam, 1  35f 

Cost  per  square  yard  Telford, 46 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHAVAYS. 


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APPENDIX     D. 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR   MACADAM   ROAD,    FRANKLIN,    ESSEX    COUNTY, 

NEW   JERSEY. 

Specifications  as  per  title  heretofore  mentioned  for  macadamizing 
said  streets  in  the  township  of  Franklin,  Essex  County,  New 
Jersey :  — 

The  roads  and  streets  named  in  the  title  aforesaid  are  to  be 
amended  and  repaired  solely  of  broken  trap  rock  and  clean  trap 
screenings,  unless  the  engineer  shall  permit  the  use  of  clean  hard 
sand  in  place  of  trap  screenings. 

The  macadam  shall  have  the  uniform  width  of  fifteen  feet,  and 
will  in  no  instance  be  less  than  four  inches  thick  when  compacted. 
When  ordered  in  writing  by  the  party  of  the  first  part,  the  thickness 
shall  be  increased  by  the  contractor,  who  shall  be  paid  twenty  per 
cent,  over  contract  price  for  each  additional  inch  of  trap  rock,  said 
inch  not  to  include  the  finishing  cost  hereinafter  particularly  speci- 
fied. If  from  any  cause  the  thickness  shall  be  less  than  four  inches, 
the  contractor  shall,  at  any  time  when  required  to  do  so,  pick  up  the 
surface  and  add  sufficient  broken  trap  and  screenings  to  make  the 
required  thickness,  at  his  own  cost. 

The  trap  rock  shall  be  broken  to  pass  through  a  two-inch  ring,  all 
stones  of  less  than  one  inch  diameter  being  screened  out.  It  shall 
be  free  from  dust,  dirt  or  loam,  free  from  flat  pieces  or  spawls,  and 
free  from  splinters  or  pieces  in  which  the  greatest  diameter  is  more 
than  twice  the  smallest.  All  broken  stone  that  is  of  poor  quality, 
from  the  presence  of  small  stones  or  any  of  the  above-mentioned 
defects,  or  that  is  found  not  to  conform  with  the  sample  deposited 
by  the  contractor,  shall  be  rejected,  and  wherever  or  whenever  found 
shall  be  removed  by  the  contractor  from  the  road  or  street. 

Screenings  shall  be  such  fragments  of  trap  rock  as  will  pass  freely 
through  a  one-inch  ring  free  from  loam  or  other  dirt.  They  shall 
not  contain  more  dust  from  the  crusher  than  the  sample  deposited  by 
the  contractor. 

The  whole  width  of  the  road-bed  shall  be  rolled  by  a  steam  road- 
roller  weighing  not  less  than  four  hundred  pounds  on  each  inch  in 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  117 

width  of  the  driving  wheels,  until  the  road-bed  is  compacted  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  engineer.  Any  settlement  that  may  be  developed 
shall  be  made  good  by  the  addition  of  sufficient  strong  earth  or 
gravel,  to  bring  the  compacted  road-bed  to  the  engineer's  lines  and 
profiles. 

After  the  road-bed  has  been  accepted  by  the  engineer,  clean  broken 
trap  shall  be  spread  and  levelled  by  the  contractor  so  that  it  shall 
have  a  width  of  fifteen  feet  on  top,  and  the  compacted  road-bed 
shall  be  fully  four  inches  thick. 

The  shoulders  or  berms  of  the  road-bed  shall  then  be  made  up  of 
strong  earth  or  gravel,  free  from  muck  or  vegetable  matter,  of  such 
thickness  that,  on  being  rolled  consecutively  with  the  broken  stone, 
they  will  conform  to  the  transverse  profile  of  the  road. 

All  stones  when  in  place  shall  be  rolled  with  a  steam  road-roller  of 
the  weight  specified  above  until  they  are  compacted ;  when  screen- 
ings shall  be  added  and  rolled  in  until  all  spaces  between  the  stone 
are  thoroughly  filled.  This  will  be  determined  by  water  "  flushing  " 
on  the  surface  of  the  road,  and  not  sinking  through  it. 

When  the  road  is  thoroughly  compacted  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
engineer,  a  coating  of  screenings  shall  be  spread  over  the  road  to 
the  uniform  depth  of  one  inch.  This  coating  of  screenings,  which 
is  not  to  be  rolled,  shall  not  be  counted  as  a  part  of  the  thickness  of 
the  road-bed,  which  shall  be  four  inches  thick  before  the  above- 
mentioned  top-dressing  is  applied. 

The  contractor  will  provide  and  maintain  signs  by  day  and  lights 
by  night,  warning  people  against  passing  over  streets  he  is  construct- 
ing, and  assumes  all  responsibility  for  accidents  in  default  of  such 
signs  or  lights. 

The  contractor  shall  remove  all  debris  and  excess  of  materials 
from  the  streets  as  they  are  furnished,  and,  on  the  completion  of  his 
work,  leave  all  the  streets  or  roads  he  has  constructed  free  from  dirt 
or  obstruction. 

The  contractor  undertakes  by  this  instrument,  in  return  for  the 
payments  to  be  made  to  him,  to  build  a  hard,  clean  road  of  uniform 
thickness  and  profile,  in  conformity  with  the  above  specification,  that 
will  not  rut  under  traffic,  and  to  maintain  the  same  for  one  year  for 
the  prices  above  mentioned,  without  claims  against  the  party  of  the 
first  part  on  account  of  any  negligence  of  its  servants. 


118  IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 


APPENDIX    E. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  A  FIVE-INCH  MACADAM  ROAD,  AS  CONSTRUCTED 
BETWEEN  THE  TOWNS  OF  FLUSHING  AND  JAMAICA,  LONG  ISLAND, 
N.  Y.,  BY  G.  A.  ROULLIER,  CIVIL  ENGINEER,  1892. 

The  road  was  about  seven  miles  long,  and  in  this  distance  passed 
over  several  brooks  and  a  number  of  hills.  The  culverts  over  the 
brooks  were  substantial  sand-stone  arches,  with  parapets  about  three 
feet  high  of  the  same  material. 

The  maximum  grade  as  established  was  generally  five  feet  to  the 
hundred  ;  in  one  case  it  was  for  a  short  distance  six  feet  in  a  hundred. 

Trap  rock  alone  was  used  for  metalling  ;  part  of  it  was  obtained  by 
breaking  boulders  found  along  the  line  of  the  road,  the  rest  was 
shipped  from  the  palisades  of  the  Hudson. 

No  figures  could  be  obtained  giving  the  cost  of  breaking  the  stone 
from  the  neighborhood.  The  palisades  rock  cost  as  follows  per  ton  :  — 


Broken  trap  rock  on  boat  at  Flushing, . 
Unloading,      ...... 

Teaming, 


Total  cost  per  ton  delivered  on  road,     .        .        .        .     $ 2  00 

The  stone  was  laid  on  about  seven  inches  thick,  and  rolled  to  about 
five  inches.  A  cubic  yard  of  stone  covered  about  five  square  yards 
of  road.  A  cubic  yard  of  the  broken  stone  weighed  about  2,500 
pounds,  and  at  $2.00  per  ton  cost  $2.50.  By  the  above  figures  the 
broken  stone  that  was  used  to  cover  one  square  yard  would  cost  about 
fifty  cents  when  dumped  on  the  road. 

The  ground  traversed  by  the  road  was  a  light  sandy  loam,  which 
allowed  the  wheels  to  sink  to  the  hubs  in  the  fall  of  the  year. 

The  ground  was  first  shaped  to  conform  to  the  surface  of  the  pro- 
posed road,  and  rolled  with  a  ten-ton  steam  roller  until  it  was  firm 
and  even ;  the  grade  and  cross-section  were  maintained  as  the  work 
of  rolling  progressed.  When,  owing  to  the  original  nature  of  the 
earth,  it  was  impossible  to  roll  it  with  the  steam  roller,  the  sub-grade 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  119 

was  lowered  three  inches  and  the  space  filled  in  with  broken  stone ; 
this  was  covered  with  a  light  layer  of  sand,  and  then  rolled  u  to  a 
bearing." 

Broken  stone,  the  fragments  from  one  inch  to  two  inches  in  diameter, 
thoroughly  mixed,  was  then  laid  on  to  a  depth  of  seven  inches  in  the 
central  half  of  the  roadway,  thinning  on  either  side  to  four  and  one- 
half  inches.  The  stones  were  spread  broadcast  by  shovels. 

After  the  requisite  depth  and  cross-section  were  obtained,  the  metal 
was  rolled  "  to  a  bearing"  by  passing  the  roller  at  least  four  times 
over  every  portion  of  the  surface.  Clean,  coarse  sand  was  then 
spread  over  the  surface  as  the  roller  worked  back  and  forth,  and 
watered  and  rolled  until  all  the  voids  in  the  stone  were  filled.  Trap- 
rock  screenings  were  then  added  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  and 
rolled  and  sprinkled  until  they  ceased  to  sink  into  the  macadam,  and 
the  water  flushed  before  the  roller. 

While  this  surface  was  still  wet  it  was  covered  with  a  layer  of 
clayey  earth  not  exceeding  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness ;  over 
this  gravelly  sand  not  exceeding  one  inch  in  thickness  was  spread. 
There  were  places  where  a  small  quantity  of  clayey  earth  was  spread 
over  the  broken  stone  before  the  screenings  were  applied. 

The  broken-stone  roadway  was  made  eighteen  feet  wide,  but  the 
earth  was  shaped  to  a  regular  crown  of  one-half  inch  to  the  foot,  and 
rolled  for  a  width  of  twenty-four  feet. 

The  gutters  were  two  feet  below  the  level  of  the  centre  of  the 
finished  road,  and  were  paved  .with  bank  stone  found  on  the  line  of 
the  construction. 

The  total  cost  of  this  admirable  roadway  was  about  $15,000  a  mile, 
which  included  all  grading,  culverts  and  paving,  as  well  as  macad- 
amizing. The  macadamizing  cost  66  cents  a  square  yard,  oi  about 
$6,969  per  mile. 

Streets  built  exactly  as  that  above  described  are  to  be  found  in 
Flushing  which  have  been  in  use  for  several  years,  yet  show  hardly 
a  wheel  mark,  much  less  a  rut  of  any  kind,  on  their  surface. 


120 


IMPROVEMENT   OP   HIGHWAYS. 


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IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS.  121 


APPENDIX    F. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  A  MACADAM  ROAD  AS  CONSTRUCTED  UPON  AN  OLI> 
GRAVEL  STREET  IN  CHELSEA,  BY  W.  E.  MC€LINTOCK,  CITY 
ENGINEER,  1887. 

The  street  was  about  2,200  feet  long,  30  feet  wide  between  the 
curbs,  and  was  shaded  by  a  row  of  elms  on  each  side  ;  a  large  amount 
of  light  and  some  heavy  travel  passed  over  it.  The  old  surface  was 
generally  flat,  yet  full  of  hollows,  very  wet  and  muddy,  n.ot  drying 
for  several  days  after  a  rain.  Granite  curbs  were  on  each  side  of 
the  street,  and  catch-basins  were  at  the  intersection  of  each  cross 
street. 

Trap  rock  broken  to  sizes  from  one  inch  to  two  and  a  half  inches 
was  laid  on,  so  as  to  give  a  crown  of  about  one-half  inch  to  the  foot ; 
the  depth  of  stone  varied  from  three  to  four  inches  at  the  gutter  and 
from  five  to  eight  inches  in  the  centre,  averaging  about  six  inches. 
The  stone  was  rolled  with  a  fifteen- ton  steam  roller  until  it  was  firmly 
compacted ;  the  surface  was  then  covered  with  trap-rock  screenings, 
which  had  passed  through  a  one-half  inch  mesh,  to  a  depth  of  about 
one  inch.  The  screenings  were  watered  and  rolled  until  the  surface 
was  hard  and  smooth.  In  about  six  weeks  the  dirt  was  scraped  off 
from  the  roadway,  and  in  a  few  weeks  more  it  was  cleaned  a  second 
time.  In  about  six  months  the  surface  while  damp  was  swept  with 
a  machine  sweeper. 

At  the  present  time,  after  nearly  six  years'  wear,  the  street  is  in 
good  condition,  the  surface  remaining  hard  and  smooth. 

The  total  cost  of  the  work,  including  stone,  breaking,  teaming, 
spreading  and  steam  rolling,  was  about  44  cents  a  square  yard.  The 
broken  stone  cost  about  $1.25  a  ton  at  the  crusher,  one  mile  distant 
from  the  place  where  it  was  used. 

There  have  been  several  miles  of  streets  in  Chelsea  built  on  the 
same  plan,  at  prices  varying  from  33  to  55  cents  a  square  yard, 
These  streets  have  not  been  repaired  since  they  were  macadamized, 
and  will  not  need  attention  for  several  years  to  come. 


122 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


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IMPROVEMENT   OF    HIGHWAYS.  123 


APPENDIX    G. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  METHOD  OF   REPAIRING  A  ROAD,  SITUATED  IN  BEL- 
MONT,    WHICH    HAD      BEEN     MACADAMIZED     FOR     ABOUT     FIFTEEN 

YEARS   WITHOUT   REQUIRING  ANY   REPAIRS,  BY  W.  E.  McCLiN- 
TOCK,  1892. 

The  road  as  originally  macadamized  was  thirty- two  feet  wide. 
The  top  of  this  road  had  worn  off,  leaving  the  large  stones  which 
were  used  in  the  original  construction  projecting  up  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  create  a  very  rough,  uneven  surface. 

A  strip  fifteen  feet  wide  through  the  centre  was  broken  up  by  the 
use  of  picks  in  the  steam-roller  wheels.  Men  with  picks  followed 
the  roller,  and  loosened  up  the  surface  already  broken  by  it.  The 
surface  was  then  rolled  with  the  fifteen-ton  steam  roller,  and  a  coat- 
ing of  broken  trap  rock,  the  fragments  from  one- half  inch  to  one 
inch  in  diameter,  was  laid  on  to  a  depth  of  two  inches,  and  rolled. 
This  was  covered  with  trap-rock  screenings  varying  in  size  from  fine 
dust  to  a  half  inch  in  diameter,  watered  and  rolled  till  the  surface 
was  solid  and  even. 

The  cost  of  this  work  was  twenty-five  cents  a  square  yard.  This 
amount,  averaged  over  the  time  since  the  road  was  built,  shows  the 
annual  cost  for  repairs  to  have  been  three-fifths  of  a  cent  per  square 
yard.  The  amount  of  vertical  wear  was  in  the  fifteen  years  of  use 
about  one-seventh  of  an  inch  per  year.  The  stone  used  in  the  repairs 
was  trap  rock,  shipped  about  thirty  miles  by  rail,  and  hauled  about 
one  and  one-half  miles  over  the  road. 


124:  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


APPENDIX    H. 


TABLES  SHOWING  THE  COST  OF  BREAKING  STONE  FOR  HIGHWAY  USB 
IN  MASSACHUSETTS  AND  ELSEWHERE. 

Newton,  Middlesex  County .    (A.  F.  J^OYES,  City  Engineer.) 

Material :  broken  cobble-stone.  Cu.  Yds, 

Amount  broken,         .        .        .        .        >»/     ..    \   .        .        *  .     1,177 

Amount  broken  per  hour,          .        .        »     '  V        .        .        .  .         11.8 

Divided  as  follows :  —  .  Cu.  Yds. 

Tailings,  .  .  .  .  t  „»  .  -  v  .  205 
Two  and  one-half  inch,  .  .  .  .-;•;.,.».  ,  672 
Dust  and  one  inch,  .  .  .  ,  ...  ..  ..  >  300 

Total,  .        .        .        ...        .        .        .      1,177  100.00 

Total  cost  per  cubic  yard  in  bins  at  crusher,    .        .        .        .  .     $0  44 

per  ton  of  2,240  pounds,  .        .        .       '.'.*'     !.    .     .  37 

per  ton  of  2,000  pounds,  .        .        ;  '  '.        i   -    't     '    .  33 

Divided  as  follows :  —                                                  Co8t.  Per  Cent. 

Teaming  to  crusher,  .        .        .        ...           $0  314  70.60 

Feeding  to  crusher,   .        .      '.        .        .        .                033  7.40 

Engineer  of  crusher, .        , .       ...   .•  .        •        •                029  6.50 

Repairs,  waste,  oil,  etc.,     .        ...        .        .                045  10.10 

Watchman,         .        .                                                          024  5.40 


Total,  ....      •';  "      .        .        .           |0  445  100.00 

Material:  broken  stone  (conglomerate).  Cu. Yds. 

Amount  broken,         *                .        *:.-. 1,288 

Amount  broken  per  hour,  on  an  average,         .        .        .        .        .  8.9 

Divided  as  follows :  —                          Cu.  Yds.             Per  Cent.  ™$*>m 

Tailings 378                 29.30  2,549 

Two  and  one-half  inch  stone,    .        .         668                 51.90  2,368 

Dust  and  one  inch  stone,  .        .        .         242                 18.80  2,727 

Total, 1,288  100.00 

Total  cost  per  cubic  yard  in  bins  at  crusher, $1  112 

per  ton  of  2,240  pounds, 991 

per  ton  of  2,000  pounds, 885 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


125 


Divided  as  follows : —                                                                    Cost.  PerCent. 

Powder  and  repairs, f 0  018  1.60 

Labor,  drilling 249  2230 

Sharpening  drills  and  tools,      ....                023  2.10 

Breaking  stone  for  crusher,      ....                420  37.80 

Loading  stone  for  crusher,         ....                127  11.40 

Teaming  stone  for  crusher,       ....                062  5.60 

Feeding  stone  for  crusher,        ....                053  4.70 

Engineer  for  crusher 038  3.50 

Coal,  oil,  waste  for  crusher,      ....                050  450 

Moving  and  setting  up  portable  crusher,         .                023  2.10 

Watchman  portable  crusher 049  4.40 

Total |1  112  100.00 

Cost.  Per  Cent 

Total  cost  preparing  stone  for  crusher,    .        .           $071  63  80 

Total  cost  delivering  to  crusher  and  breaking,                402  36.20 

Total, |1  112  100.00 

Material :  broken  stone  (greenish  trap).  Cu.  Yds. 

Amount  broken, 3,155 

Amount  broken  per  hour,  on  an  average, 77 

Divided  as  follows  :  —                                                        Cu.  Yds.         Per.  Cent.  Cu^Yds. 

Tailings, 1,004          31.80  2,457 

Two  and  one-half  inch  stone,    .        .        .        .      1,618          51.30  2,383 

One  inch  stone, 323          10.20  2,277 

One-half  inch  stone  or  dust 210            6.70  2,585 

Total, 3,155        100.00 

Total  cost  per  cubic  yard  in  bins  at  crusher, $0  898 

per  ton  of  2,240  pounds, 834 

per  ton  of  2,000  pounds, 745 

Divided  as  follows  :  —                                                                                       Cost.  PerCent. 

Labor,  steam  drilling, $0092  10.30 

Steam  drilling, including  coal,  oil,  waste,  powder,  repairs,           084  9.40 

Sharpening  drills  and  tools, 069  7.70 

Breaking  stone  for  crusher, 279  31.00 

Loading  stone  for  crusher, 098  11.00 

Teaming  stone  for  crusher, 072  8.00 

Feeding  stone  for  crusher, 053  5.90 

Engineer  of  crusher, 031  3.40 

Coal,  oil,  waste  and  repairs  of  crusher,    ....           079  8.80 

Repairs, 041  4.50 

Total, fO  898  100.00 

Cost.  Per  Cent 

Total  cost  preparing  stone  for  crusher,    ....      $0525  58.40 

Total  cost  delivering  to  crusher  and  breaking,        .        .           373  41.60 

Total,.                                                                                    $0  898  100.00 


126  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


Description  oj  Stone-breaking  Plant  with  Cost  of  Breaking,  for  Years 
1887  and  1888,  Chelsea,  Mass.  (W.  E.  .McCLiNTOCK,  City 
Engineer.) 

The  crusher  is  a  9  by  15  Farrell  and  Marsden,  with  a  10  by  12 
portable  engine  rated  at  twenty  horse-power.  The  crusher  is  set  on 
a  platform  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  so  arranged  that  the  stone  can  be 
delivered  at  the  jaws  of  the  crusher  without  a  second  handling.  The 
stone  passes  from  the  jaws  of  the  crusher  into  a  rotary  screen,  which 
is  made  to  revolve  by  the  same  power  that  runs  the  crusher.  From 
the  screen  it  falls  into  shutes  which  carry  the  stone  of  different  sizes 
into  four  bins.  The  bins  are  of  sufficient  capacity  to  hold  the  stone 
of  two  days'  breaking.  It  takes  two  men  to  feed  the  crusher  and 
one  man  to  run  the  engine.  The  city  does  not  own  the  ledge,  and 
was  obliged  to  contract  with  the  lessee,  who  quarried  out  the  stone 
and  delivered  it  on  the  platform  at  a  certain  price  ;  this  price  in  1887 
was  seventy-five  cents  a  ton,  in  1888  a  dollar  a  ton. 

Itemized  cost  (per  ton)  of  breaking  1,718  tons  of  stone  during  the 
year  1887  (trap  rock)  :  — 

Tools,          .        . ,,  ,  $0  013 

Oil  and  cans,       .        .        ...        .        .  .  .  016 

Stone  at  the  crusher,  .        .        .    •  '.        .     ,   »  ,  .  ,,  75 

Crushing,  labor,          .        .         .        .'       .        .  .  ,,  194 

Fuel,   .....  05 


Total  cost  per  ton,       .        .        ...      '  .        .'        .      $1  023 

Cost  of  stone-breaking  (3,853  tons)  during  the  year  1888,  includ- 
ing every  item  of  expense  at  and  around  the  crusher,  engine  and 
bins,  and  stone,  quarrying,  breaking  to  go  into  crusher,  teaming  to 
crusher,  etc. ;  the  price  is  given  per  ton  of  stone  broken  :  — 

Running,     .        .        .......        . .;,     *      ..*        .      $0051 

Repairs  and  putting  in  pump,   ....        .        .    '•«-.'  055 

Feeding .        .        .  078 

Stone,  quarrying,  etc.,        .     ,,  .        .^>.         .        .         .  967 

Clearing  screen  and  bins, 025 

Fuel, 048 

Oil  and  waste '  007 

Chills, 020 

Water,  005 


Total  cost  per  ton, f  1  256 

Total  amount  expended  in  crushing,         ....  $4,847  14 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  127 


APPENDIX  I. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HOLYHEAD   ROAD,  AS  BUILT  BY  SIR  THOMAS 

TELFORD. 

Section  Built  on  Foundation  of  Large  Stone. 

The  crown  was  two-fifths  of  an  inch  per  foot.  The  bottom  layer 
consists  of  quarry-stone  pavement,  seven  inches  deep  in  centre,  thin- 
ning to  three  inches  on  sides,  laid  in  by  hand.  The  middle  layer 
consists  of  broken  stone,  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter,  six 
inches  in  the  centre,  thinning  to  four  inches  on  sides.  The  top  layer 
consists  of  gravel  one  and  one-half  inches  deep. 

Section  Built  on  Foundation  of  Gravel. 

Crown,  one-half  inch  per  foot.  The  bottom  layer  consists  of  gravel 
six  inches  deep  in  centre,  thinning  to  three  inches  on  sides.  The 
middle  layer  consists  of  broken  stone,  two  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter,  eight  inches  deep  in  centre,  thinning  to  four  inches  on  sides. 
The  top  layer  consists  of  gravel  one  and  one-half  inches  deep. 


128 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


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IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


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130  IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 


APPENDIX    J. 


Table  H  gives  the  results  of  a  study  of  the  different  types  of 
wagons  used  in  and  about  Boston,  Holyoke,  North  Adams,  North- 
ampton, Pittsfield,  Greenfield  and  Springfield.  In  this  table  are 
shown  the  length  of  axle,  width  of  tire,  weight  of  wagon  and  load, 
and  the  load  per  inch  in  width  of  tire.  The  average  load  per  inch  of 
tire  of  each  type  of  wagon  is  also  given.  A  condensed  statement 
of  the  load  hauled  by  each  horse  on  the  different  types  of  wagons  in 
the  different  municipalities  referred  to  will  be  found  in  Table  J. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 


131 


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IMPKOVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


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IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 


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152 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


TABLE  I.  —  Giving  the  Number  of  Tons  of  Freight  hauled  One 

per  Day  and  per  Year,  over  the  Roads  on  which  Traffic  Obser- 
vations were  made. 


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PLACE  OF  OBSERVATION. 

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Beacon  Street,  at  Brighton  Road,   . 

2,592 

864 

8.8 

2,851 

94,083 

Beacon  Street,  at  Coolidge's  Corner, 

1,685 

562 

3.0 

1,686 

55,638 

Blue  Hill  Avenue,  at  Washington  Street 

611 

204 

3.9 

796 

26,268 

Blue  Hill  Avenue,  at  Mattapan, 

703 

234 

3.0 

702 

23,166 

Broadway,  at  Chelsea  Bridge, 
Broadway,  at  Revere  Street,  Revere, 

2,777 
1,437 

926 
479 

2.3 
4.0 

2,130 
1,916 

70,290 
63,228 

Western  Avenue,  Cambridge  Bridge, 

2,028 

676 

1.6 

1,082 

35,706 

Western  Avenue  and  Arsenal  Street, 

2,290 

763 

3.3 

2,518 

83,094 

Totals,       .        .        .        ... 

14,123 

4,708 

13,681 

451  473 

3  0 

TABLE  J.  —  Statistics  showing  the  Average  Load  (in  Pounds)  per 
Horse  for  Different  Kinds  of  Wagons  in  Various  Cities  of  the 
Commonwealth. 


CHARACTER  OF  TKAMS. 


CITIES. 

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Boston, 

3,393 

3,611 

5,089 

5,205 

3,275 

4,081 

4,167 

2,184   5,000 

Pittsfield,  . 

2,063 

3,219 

3,010 

2,417 

2,000 

_ 

3,100 

1,800     ~-   1 

Northampton,   . 

2,375 

3,175 

2,200 

- 

2,500 

1,375 

- 

-    pST  •"' 

Greenfield,        .        . 

2,678 

1,588 

-      1,500 

2,625 

- 

- 

—       :       - 

Holyoke,  . 

2,133 

2,250 

3,951 

- 

- 

_ 

- 

~~       1       ~ 

North  Adams,  . 

1,917 

- 

3,237 

- 

-  ' 

3,000 

1,925 

Springfield, 

2,917 

3,625 

2,950 

2,500 

2,250 

- 

2,500 

-    ;    - 

Average  outside  Bos- 

ton, 

2,347 

2,771 

3,070 

2,139 

2,344 

2,188 

2,508 

1,800)     -    : 

Per  cent,  of  average 

values    to    Boston 

values,  . 

69 

77 

60 

41 

72 

54 

60 

82  ,   - 

An  average  of  these  percentages  gives  the  load  per  horse  outside  of 
Boston  as  sixty-four  per  cent,  of  the  Boston  value. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  153 


APPENDIX    K. 


Table  B  shows  the  answers  to  Schedule  B,  which  contained  the 
following  interrogatories  :  — 

Number  of  miles  of  roads  of  all  description?  Of  the  above  total 
miles  of  roads  in  your  town,  will  you  please  state  how  many  miles  of 
roads  connect  with  the  adjoining  towns.  Give  the  names  of  county 
roads.  How  many  miles  of  roads  are  local  only?  Of  the  above  total 
miles  of  roads,  will  you  please  state,  as  near  as  possible,  the  — 

Number  of  miles  of  dirt  roads ;  average  width  of  travelled  roadway. 

Number  of  miles  of  gravel  roads ;  average  width  of  travelled  roadway. 

Number  of  miles  of  macadamized  roads;  average  width  of  travelled 
roadway. 

Number  of  miles  of  granite  block  paving;  average  width  of  travelled 
roadway. 

Number  of  miles  of  wood  paving ;  average  width  of  travelled  roadway. 

Number  of  miles  of  brick  paving ;  average  width  of  travelled  roadway. 

Number  of  miles  of  asphalt  paving ;  average  width  of  travelled  roadway. 

Number  of  miles  of  concrete  paving ;  average  width  of  travelled  roadway. 

Number  of  miles  of  cobble  paving ;  average  width  of  travelled  roadway. 

This  table  gives  the  number  of  miles  of  different  kinds  of  pave- 
ments and  roads  in  the  Commonwealth  outside  of  Boston. 

A  brief  study  will  show  that  there  are  5,548  miles  of  gravel  roads, 
469  miles  of  macadam,  49  miles  of  granite  blocks,  26  miles  of  cobble, 
6  miles  of  concrete,  J  mile  of  asphalt,  1,643  square  yards  of  brick 
and  10  miles  of  shell.  Outside  of  Boston  there  are  about  20,000 
miles  of  streets  and  roads  in  the  Commonwealth.  The  above  figures 
show  that  nearly  30.5  per  cent,  of  them  are  either  paved,  macadam- 
ized or  gravel.  The  remaining  69.5  per  cent,  are  what  we  class  dirt 
roads,  or  roads  which  are  made  from  the  soil  over  which  they  pass. 
A  large  percentage  of  the  5,548  miles  of  gravel  roads  are  but  little 
better  than  the  dirt.  They  are  mostly  bad  during  wet  weather. 

Table  C  shows  the  replies  to  Schedule  C,  which  contained  the  fol- 
lowing questions :  — 

How  much  of  the  appropriation  for  1891  was  expended  for  the 
following  purposes:  Snow  and  ice?  General  repairs?  Cleaning 
streets  and  gutters?  Sidewalks?  Gravel  roads?  Macadamized 
roads?  Paved  gutters?  Paved  streets?  Bridges?  New  roads? 


154:  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

Total  appropriations  for  highways  and  bridges  for  1891?  What  is 
the  assessed  value  of  real  estate  ?  What  is  the  assessed  value  of 
personal  property?  What  was  the  rate  of  taxation  in  1891? 

This  table  contains  the  reports  from  the  different  towns  and  cities 
of  the  Commonwealth,  and  shows  amount  of  money  expended  on 
different  classes  of  work,  together  with  the  valuation  and  tax  rate. 
A  study  of  the  table  will  show  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
money  has  been  expended  on  general  repairs. 

In  the  counties  of  Dukes,  Barnstable  and  Nantucket,  no  macadam- 
izing was  done.  Money  was  expended  on  macadam  roads  during 
1892  in  the  several  counties  as  follows  :  — 

Barnstable,  not  any. 

Berkshire,  one  city,  four  towns, $22,595 

Bristol,  two  cities,  two  towns,  . -^' V    ^  V       .        .  67,524 

Dukes,  not  any. 

Essex,  one  city,  four  towns,    .  .        .        .        .        .  •  29,033 

Franklin,  one  town,         .        ^  .        «        .        ,  : #*•'  4,200 

Hampden,  one  city,  two  towns,  -      —       ^  '^   ;        .  20,065 
Hampshire,  none  reported. 

Suffolk,  outside  of  Boston,  one  city,       .        .        .  ' '.  5,569 

Middlesex,  four  cities,  seven  towns,  about     .        .  .  73,677 

Norfolk,  one  city,  four  towns,  *       :.  •      v  g  V  Y  48,500 

Plymouth,  five  towns,      .        .  .        ...        .  10,200 

Worcester,  one  city,  one  town,  .        .        .       •;,.  _  (.-,.  22,303 

Total,        .  $303,666 

Several  cities  and  towns  have  failed  to  return  answers ;  some  of 
these  have  done  considerable  macadam  work  during  the  past  year, 
but  they  are  necessarily  omitted  from  this  report.  It  appears  that  a 
total  of  eleven  cities  and  thirty  towns  have  expended  $303,666  in  con- 
structing macadam  roads  in  the  year  1892. 

Gravel  roads  have  been  built  in  the  several  counties  as  follows  :  — 

Barnstable,  one  town, $1,000 

Berkshire,  one  city,  seven  towns,    .        .        .        .        i  7,925 

Bristol,  five  towns, 11,474 

Dukes,  one  town, 53 

Essex,  one  city,  six  towns, 9,834 

Franklin,  one  town, 100 

Hampden,  two  cities,  five  towns,    .....  15,103 

Hampshire,  two  towns, 4,400 

Suffolk,  one  city,  one  town, 4,455 

Middlesex,  four  cities,  ten  towns, 55,668 

Norfolk,  seven  towns, 38,488 

Plymouth,  ten  towns, 14,041 

Worcester,  sixteen  towns, 21,489 

Total, 3184,030 

Total  amount  reported  as  expended  in  nine  cities  and 

seventy-two  towns  on  gravel  roads  was  .        .        .      f  184,030 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS.  155 

Several  cities  and  towns  have  not  separated  the  macadam  and 
gravel  work ;  as  a  result,  these  figures  do  not  represent  the  exact 
expenditures,  but  they  furnish  a  good  means  of  studying  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  in  a  general  way.  Judging  from  the  reports  sent 
to  this  commission,  it  is  fair  to  say  that  roads  built  of  macadam  or 
gravel  are  the  only  ones  that  are  in  any  way  permanent.  By  sepa- 
rating the  cities'  and  towns'  expenditures,  we  find  that  the  macadam 
work  in  the  cities  cost  $130,702;  in  the  towns,  $172,974;  total, 
$303,676.  Gravel  work  in  the  cities  cost  $42,680 ;  in  the  towns, 
$141,350;  total,  $184,030. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  total  amount  expended  on  gravel  and  mac- 
adam roads  in  the  different  towns  throughout  the  State  amounted  to 
$314,324. 

By  referring  to  Table  L,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  average  amount 
expended  in  the  towns  per  year  for  the  past  three  years  was  $1,136,- 
944.  The  amount  expended  on  work  of  a  more  or  less  permanent 
character  was  about  twenty-seven  and  one-half  per  cent,  of  the  total 
expenditure.  A  further  study  will  show  that  a  considerable  amount 
was  expended  on  bridges,  roads,  sidewalks,  paved  gutters,  cleaning 
streets  and  removing  snow  and  ice. 

Schedule  D  was  as  follows  :  — 

Have  you  a  steam  roller?  Weight?  Cost?  Have  you  a  horse- 
roller?  Weight?  Cost?  Is  the  horse-roller  solid?  Is  the  horse- 
roller  of  the  ring  pattern  ?  Have  you  a  stone  crusher?  Size?  Cost? 
Is  your  crusher  set  up  to  take  the  stone  without  two  handlings  ?  Do 
you  have  an  elevator  to  lift  stone  from  crusher  to  screen  or  bins? 
Height  ?  Cost  of  elevator  ?  Do  you  have  a  revolving  screen  ?  Do 
you  have  plain  screens  ?  How  many  grades  of  stone  do  you  screen 
out  ?  Do  you  have  storage  bins  at  crusher  for  broken  stone  ?  How 
many?  Do  you  load  broken  stone  from  bins  without  shovelling? 
Do  you  load  broken  stone  by  shovelling  ?  How  much  per  ton  'does  it 
cost  to  load  broken  stone  with  shovels  ?  How  many  horses  do  you 
use  to  haul  your  horse-roller  ?  Do  you  own  a  road  machine  ?  Cost  ? 
Do  you  own  water  carts  ?  How  many  ?  Capacity  in  gallons  ? 

These  were  asked  to  show  the  machinery  in  use  for  road  building 
throughout  the  Commonwealth.  The  road  machine  or  scraper  seems 
to  be  in  general  use.  They  are  to  be  found  in  the  several  counties 
as  follows :  — 


15(3 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


Number. 

Cost. 

Barnstable,          ....... 

13 

$2,975 

Berkshire,   

31 

6,712 

Bristol,        

16 

2  89o 

Dukes,         ....                 ... 

Essex,  .        .        .        . 

17 

3,418 

Franklin,     .        .         .        i      *  .  VH  ; 

21 

4,775 

Hampden,   .        .        .      •«,».';;., 

25 

4,900 

Hampshire,       '  .        .'      .         . 

25 

5,100 

Middlesex,  .        .        .        .        .        .        ;        ,>\ 

46 

9,571 

Nantueket,  .         .        .       .*..-« 

1 

250 

Norfolk,       ......... 

24 

5,171 

Plymouth,   

26 

5,490 

Suffolk  (excluding  Boston),       ,        . 
Worcester,  ....      Mo  j.»  •,;  ff'^,  >:. 

3 
71 

735 

16,800 

Total,   .        .        .  '    ';  ••"•;:'"j  '''*•?.  'v'^  ?*f>'~S 

318 

$54,722 

There  are  only  92  cities  and  towns  of  the  State  that  do  not  own  a 
road  machine ;  the  remaining  259  own  318  machines,  which  cost 
$54,722.  These  machines  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the 
cities  in  clearing  snow  out  of  the  gutters.  They  are,  however,  most 
generally  used  for  shaping  the  road  surface. 

A  great  many  of  the  towns  can  manage  to  work  the  scraper  at 
least  once  a  year  over  most  of  the  roads.  The  results  obtained  are 
not  what  could  be  desired,  but  the  roads  are  better  than  they  other- 
wise would  be.  Some  towns  scrape  sods,  soil  and  anything  back 
onto  the  road  ;  others  scrape  them  off,  and  then  fill  the  ruts.  By  the 
use.  of  the  scraper  a  mistake  is  often  made  by  cutting  away  the  turf 
which  has  formed  along  the  sides;  when  this  is  removed,  the  water 
washes,  the  sides  to  a  certain  extent.  Many  good  superintendents 
rather  deprecate  the  indiscriminate  use  of  this  machine,  and  claim 
that  the  general  condition  of  the  roads  is  at  a  lower  standard  since 
their  introduction. 

But  few  municipalities  own  a  water  cart ;  this  is  usually  hired  when 
it  is  needed  about  any  work.  There  are,  however,  one  hundred  and 
thirty  so  owned  by  forty-five  different  cities  and  towns.  It  is  well  to 
remember  that  a  careful  watering  of  well-made  streets  greatly  in- 
creases the  length  of  time  they  will  wear  without  repairs.  A  strong 
wind  will  remove  the  dry  binding  material  from  the  surface  of  a  road, 
and  leave  the  stones  projecting  up  so  as  to  form  an  uneven  way,  or 
be  kicked  out  by  the  horses  as  they  travel  over  it. 

Barnstable,  Dukes  and  Nantueket  counties  have  no  stone  crushers. 
There  are  stone  crushers  in  the  several  other  counties  as  follows  :  — 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS.  157 

Berkshire, 3 

Bristol, 6 

Essex, 9 

Franklin 1 

Hampden, 3 

Hampshire, 1 

Middlesex, 16 

Norfolk 10 

Plymouth, 7 

Suffolk 5 

Worcester, 3 

Total,. -;•    H      64 

Most  of  the  crushers  are  set  up  on  a  side  hill,  with  bins  beneath 
for  two  to  four  grades  of  stone  ;  in  most  of  these  the  stone  has  to  be 
shovelled.  Ten  cities  and  towns  have  elevators  and  storage  screens, 
with  a  revolving  screen  at  top  of  the  bins,  the  stone  being  loaded 
into  the  carts  without  shovelling.  A  few  bins  are  arranged  to  load 
by  means  of  shutes  directly  into  the  carts.  There  are  several  cities 
and  towns  that  buy  the  broken  stone  of  private  parties.  This  stone 
is  in  many  cases  shipped  by  rail  from  ten  to  one  hundred  miles, 
and  sold  on  the  cars  at  destination  at  $1.25  to  $1.40  per  ton.  The 
private  plants  known  to  the  commission  are  in  Salem,  Waltham, 
Boston,  Dedham,  Hingham,  Westfield  and  Rockport.  Some  trap 
rock  has  been  shipped  to  Springfield  from  Meriden,  Conn.  A  very 
few  of  -the  crushers  are  portable. 

In  reply  to  the  question  as  to  the  cost  of  shovelling  broken  stone 
onto  the  carts,  25  towns  answered,  "This  cost  varies  from  4  to  20 
cents,  a  mean  of  about  9£  cents  per  ton."  In  this  connection  it  is 
well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  an  elevator  and  bins,  or  bins 
set  up  to  load  without  shovelling,  will  save  9£  cents  on  each  ton  of 
stone  on  this  one  item.  If  the  time  saved  on  the  team  while  waiting 
to  be  loaded  be  taken  into  account,  the  saving  may  be  estimated  to 
be  from  20  to  30  cents  a  ton,  or  about  $5.00  on  2,000  tons  of  stone. 

Most  of  the  roadmasters  believe  that  broken  stone  should  be 
screened  into  sizes  nearly  equal ;  but  five  put  the  stone  on  without 
screening  ;  nine  screen  into  two  sizes  ;  seventeen  into  three  sizes  ;  four- 
teen into  four  sizes.  At  several  plants  the  coarse  stone  that  comes  out 
at  the  end  of  the  revolving  screen  is  passed  back  through  the'  crusher. 

There  are  28  steam  rollers  owned  by  cities  and  towns,  and  2  owned 
by  private  parties;  2  of  these  weigh  18  tons;  23  weigh  15  tons;  2 
weigh  12  tons  ;  1  weighs  11  tons  ;  1  weighs  10  tons  ;  1  weighs  7  tons. 

There  are  87  horse-rollers  owned  by  different  cities  and  towns,  of 
the  following  patterns  :  72  iron  rings,  11  stone,  2  plain  iron.  These 
are  worked  by  from  two  to  six  horses.  The  roadmasters  who  are 
accomplishing  the  best  results  are  strongly  in  favor  of  a  steam  roller. 
They  affirm  that  the  work  can  be  done  much  better  and  at  less  cost 


158  IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 

by  steam  than  by  horses.  One  objection  to  the  use  of  horse-rollers 
is  that  it  requires  so  much  time  to  compact  the  roadway  properly  that 
part  of  the  work  lays  behind.  In  order  to  roll  all  work  a  little,  none 
of  it  is  thoroughly  compacted. 

Schedule  E  consists  of  the  following  questions  :  — 

Do  you  favor  legislation  providing  for  assistance  by  the  Common- 
wealth in  the  building  and  maintaining  of  certain  roads?  Do  you 
favor  legislation  providing  for  assistance  by  the  county  rather  than 
by  the  Commonwealth,  in  the  building  and  maintaining  of  certain 
roads  ?  Do  you  favor  legislation  providing  for  a  State  Highway  Com- 
mission for  the  purpose  of  supervising  the  roads  for  which  the  State 
renders  aid  in  building  and  maintaining,  and  for  consultation  with 
county  or  town  officials?  Having  had  experience  in  road  work  in 
your  own  town,  will  you  kindly  make  any  suggestions  bearing  on  the 
questions  submitted  that  will  assist  the  State  Highway  Commission  in 
making  a  careful  study  of  the  road  question  throughout  the  State  ? 

This  schedule  is  sent  out  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  sentiment 
of  the  cities  and  towns  with  reference  to  assistance  by  the  State,  by  the 
counties,  and  the  formation  of  a  State  commission.  Some  valuable 
information  and  suggestions  were  sent  in  reply  to  the  fourth  question  ; 
these  will  be  submitted  with  the  other  exhibits  for  further  reference 
and  use.  The  appended  table  will  show  the  feeling  in  the  different 
municipalities  as  expressed  by  the  selectmen  or  road  commissioners. 

There  is  \ strong  feeling  that  in  the  smaller  towns  there  is  ho  prac- 
ticable way  to  obtain  instruction  and  guidance  other  than  by  a  State 
commission,  who  shall  visit  the  towns  and  advise  with  the  road  officers. 
The  sentiment  is  very  strong  throughout  the  State  that  the  counties 
have  not  assisted  the  poorer  towns.  The  reasons  for  this,  as  ex- 
pressed, were  numerous.  Lack  of  money  seems  to  be  the  primary 
cause  ;  politics  and  local  jealousies  are  in  many  instances  equally  to 
blame.  One  oft-repeated  statement  was  that  a  central  board  would 
be  freer  from  local  influences.  A  study  of  the  testimony  given  before 
the  commission  at  the  different  county  seats  will  show  more  clearly 
than  anything  else  the  strength  of  the  feeling. 

Questions  in  Schedule  F  :  — 

Do  you  use  rock  on  your  roads  ?  Does  your  rock  come  from  a 
ledge  ?  Does  your  rock  come  from  a  gravel  bank  ?  Does  your  rock 
come  from  stone  walls,  or  fields  ?  How  many  ledges  do  you  work  ? 
What  is  the  average  distance  you  have  to  haul  rock  ?  What  does  it 
cost  per  ton  to  blast  ?  What  does  it  cost  per  ton  to  team  rock  ?  How 
many  gravel  banks  do  you  use  ?  What  is  the  average  distance  you 
team  gravel  ?  What  does  it  cost  per  single  load  to  team  ?  What  does 
it  cost  per  double  load  to  team  ?  Does  your  gravel  bank  have  many 
large  stones  in  it  ?  Is  the  gravel  clean  and  free  from  dirt  ?  Is  there 


IMPROVEMENT   OP   HIGHWAYS.  159 

binding  material  in  the  gravel  ?  How  does  the  gravel  wear  on  the 
roads  ?  Does  the  gravel  crush  easily  and  make  the  roads  muddy  ? 
What  proportion  of  your  annual  appropriation  for  highways  is  ex- 
pended on  county  roads  ?  What  condition  are  your  county  roads  in  ; 
that  is,  are  they  dusty  in  dry  weather?  Are  they  muddy  in  wet 
weather?  Do  they  bog  up  in  the  spring  when  the  frost  is  coming 
out?  Does  the  water  easily  drain  off  after  a  rainfall?  Are  there 
side  ditches?  How  deep  are  the  ditches  below  centre  of  road?  Do 
the  roads  rut  up  ?  In  repairing,  do  you  use  a  road  scraper  ?  Do 
you  scrape  sods  onto  the  roads  in  repairing?  Do  you  team  on  fresh 
gravel  in  repairing  ?  What  crown  do  you  give  the  roadway  ?  Do  you 
use  broken  stone  in  resurfacing  your  county  roads?  Do  you  screen 
the  broken  stone  before  putting  it  on  the  road?  What  depth  do  you 
put  on  the  broken  stone  ?  Do  you  roll  your  broken  stone  ?  Do  you 
roll  your  gravel  ?  Do  you  put  on  any  binding  material  on  your  gravel 
roads?  Do  you  roll  before  putting  on  your  binding?  Do  you  use 
gravel,  or  sand,  for  a  binding  material?  Do  you  use  hard-pan  for 
binding  material  ?  Do  you  use  dirt  for  binding  material  ?  Do  you 
screen  out  large  stone  from  binding  material?  Do  you  roll  after  put- 
ting on  binding  material  ?  Do  you  use  screenings  from  the  broken 
stone  for  binding  on  broken-stone  roads  ?  Do  you  put  anything  on 
top  of  stone  screenings  when  using  them  for  binding  material? 
What?  Why?  What  sized  opening  do  you  use  in  screen  when 
screening  road  metal  out  of  the  broken  stone  ?  Do  you  have  a  one- 
inch  mesh  in  your  screen?  What  do  you  do  with  the  one-inch  stone, 
—  do  you  put  it  on  top  of  road,  or  underneath  the  larger  stone,  or 
use  it  on  other  work  ?  Do  you  use  the  one-inch  stone  in  repairing  ? 
How  deep  do  you  use  it?  Do  you  use  a  binding  material  with  the 
one-inch  stone?  What?  How  deep?  Do  you  roll  before  putting  on 
binding  material  ?  Do  you  roll  after  putting  on  binding  material  ? 
What  is  your  rule  in  rolling  ? 

Is  it  possible,  with  your  appropriations,  to  keep  your  county  roads 
in  good  repair  all  the  year?  If  your  county  roads  are  put  in  good 
condition,  is  it  possible,  with  your  appropriation,  to  maintain  them  in 
good  condition  all  the  year?  In  cases  where  the  road  bogs  up  and 
becomes  shaky  in  the  spring  when  the  frost  is  coming  out,  will  you 
kindly  describe  the  material  under  the  roadway,  —  is  it  clay  ?  Is  it 
loam?  Does  the  ground  slope  up  on  the  side?  Does  the 

ground  slope  up  on  the  side  ?  Does  the  ground  slope  up  on 

both  sides  ?  Is  there  a  ditch  on  the  side  ?  Is  there  a  ditch  on 

the  side  ? 

Schedule  F  covers  so  many  questions  that  it  is  impossible  to  tabu- 
late them  so  that  they  will  be  of  any  value  The  principal  answers 
have  been  taken  off,  and  will  be  submitted  as  part  of  the  testimony. 
They  will  explain  quite  plainly  the  methods  that  are  used  throughout 
the  State,  and  are  interesting  as  a  history  of  the  present  time. 


160 


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200 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


TABLE  E.  —  Showing  Replies  of  Selectmen  and  Road  Commissioners 
on  the  Advisability  of  Assistance  being  rendered  by  the  State  or 
County,  and  on  the  Appointment  of  a  State  Highway  Commission. 

BARNSTABLE  COUNTY. 


TOWNS. 

Favor 
State  Aid. 

Favor 
County  Aid. 

Favor 
State  Highway 
Commission. 

Barnstable,      .        .  •    .'..   .     .        ,   -    .  . 
Bourne,   „*•..> 
Brewster,        .        .        .        .        ... 
Chatham,         .        .        .        .        *,  \  •  1.  1 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 

No, 
No, 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Dennis,    
Eastham,         .        .        .        .                 . 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Falmouth,       .        .        .        .     '   . 

No, 

Yes, 

No. 

Harwich,         +        ^       . 

No, 

No, 

No. 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes. 

Orleans,  .        .        .        .        ••.••..•' 
Provincetown,         
Sandwich,        .        .        .        .        . 
Truro,     .        .                 .   '     .    1  '.'  ..*  V 
Wellfleet,        .        .        . 

Yes, 

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 

No, 

No, 
Yes, 

Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

Yarmouth,       .        .        .        .        ,    ;    . 

Yes, 

Yes. 

BERKSHIRE  COUNTY. 


Adams,    .        .V      .  •    ».    •''.<  !  *.« 
Alford,    .        .        ^       .        . 
Becket,    .        .        /;      .        .        .        . 

Cheshire,         .     '  ,~     '.;—_'.*  :  V'--1. 

No, 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 
No, 
Yes, 
No, 
No, 

Yes. 
No. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

Dalton,    .        .        .    4    .    it    .        .  •  4  ---i- 
Egremont,       .        •»    '    .        .''.'. 
Florida,  .        .        ;        .        , 
Great  Barrington,   .        .        ,        .  v     . 

No, 

Yes, 
No, 

No, 

No, 

No, 

No. 

Yes. 

No. 

No, 

No, 

No. 

Hinsdale,         •        .    •  •  .*  :      .        .    '    .- 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Lanesborough,        .        .        .        .        . 

No, 

No, 

No. 

Lee,         .        .        .        .       ,.,.,«, 
Lenox,     •  ri    • 

No, 

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 
No, 

Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

Mount  Washington,        .        .      .  .        ^ 

Yes. 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

New  Marlborough,         .... 

North  Adams,         ..... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Otis,        

Yes, 

Peru  .  *     ;  ' 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Pittsfield,        

Richmond,       ...... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Sandisfield,      

Yes, 

No, 

No. 

IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


201 


TABLE  E.  —  Continued. 
BERKSHIRE   COUNTY  —  Concluded. 


TOWNS. 

Favor 
State  Aid. 

F»vor 
County  Aid. 

Favor 

State  Highway 
Commission. 

Savoy,     
Sheffield,         

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 

No, 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Stockbridge,    
Tyrin°rham,     ...... 

Yes, 
Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Washington,    
West  Stockbrido-e,  ..... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Williamstown,         ..... 

Windsor,         ...... 

Yes, 

BRISTOL    COUNTY. 


Acushnet,        
Attleborough,          ..... 

Yes, 

No, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

Yes, 
No, 
No, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 
Yes, 
No, 
No, 

No, 
Yes, 
No, 
No, 
No, 

No, 

Yes. 
No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 
No. 
No. 
Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 

Berkley,  
Dartmouth,      ...... 
Dighton,  
Easton,    .        .   •     
Fairhaven,       ...... 

Fall  River,      

Mansfield,       

North  Attleborough,  -|V       «.       •        • 

Norton,   

Rehoboth,        

Seekonk,     •    .        
Somerset,        

Taunton,          ...... 

Westport,        

DUKES  COUNTY. 

No, 
Yes, 

Yes, 

No, 

No, 

No, 

No. 
Yes. 

Yes. 

Cottage  City,  

Gay  Head,       

Gosnold,  
Tisbury,  

ESSEX  COUNTY. 

Amesbury,       ...... 

Y~es, 
No, 

Yes, 
No, 

Yes. 

No. 

Beverly,  

202 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 


TABLE  E.  —  Continued. 
ESSEX  COUNTY  —  Concluded. 


TOWNS. 

Favor 
State  Aid. 

Favor 
County  Aid. 

Favor 
State  Highway 
Commission. 

Boxford,  .        ...        V'C     . 
Bradford,         .        .        .-••*'. 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes 

Danvers,          ...... 

Essex,      ....     ....,'      /  .    ..,- 

Yes 

Yes, 

Yes. 
Yes 

Gloucester,      ...*•-.. 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Groveland,      .        .        .        ,        . 

Hamilton,        .        .        .        *        . 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Haverhill,       

Ipswich,  .        .         .        ... 
Lawrence,       .        .        .        .        ^  .     • 

No, 

No, 

No. 

Lynnfield,        .        .        .        .        ,        , 

Manchester,    .        .        .     •  »        .    ,    . 
Marblehead,    .        .        .        ... 

No, 
Yes 

No, 
No 

No. 

Yes 

Merrimac,       .        .        .        ,        ... 

Yes, 

Yes 

No, 

No, 

No. 

Middleton,       .        .        .     ••  ,        .    .    . 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Nahant,  .        .        .        .        *        .    •    . 
Newbury,        .        .         .        r        .  ;.  »    . 
Newburyport,         .        .        .        v   •    . 

No, 

No, 

No. 

Peabody,         .        .        .        .        .'  .    . 

* 

Rowley,  
Salem,     

•Yes, 
No 

No, 
No 

Yes. 

No 

Saugus,  

Yes, 

No 

Yes 

Yes. 

No 

Topsfield,        

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Wenham,         .        .        .        .        ... 

No, 

No, 

No 

No, 

FRANKLIN   COUNTY. 


Ashfield,.        .        .        .     ,ty;     . 
Bernardston,  .        .        .       v 

Yes, 

Yes, 

No, 
Yes 

Yes. 

Yes 

Buckland,        
Charlemont,    ...... 

Yes, 

No, 

No, 
No 

Yes. 

No 

Colrain,  ....... 
Conway,  
Deerfield,        

Yes, 
Yes, 

.  No, 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Ervingr,    ..... 
Gill,         

Yes, 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Greenfield,      ...... 
Hawley,  
Heath,     .                 

No, 

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 

No. 
Yes. 

Thinks  favorably. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 


203 


TABLE  E.  —  Continued. 
FRANKLIN  COUNTY— Concluded. 


TOWNS. 

FaTor 
SUt«  Aid. 

Favor 
County  Aid. 

Favor 
State  High  way 
Commission. 

1/everett,  .        ...... 
Leyden,  
Monroe,  
Montague,       ...... 

Yes, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 
No, 

Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes, 

No 

Yes 

Northfield,       

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Orange,  
Rowe,      
Shelburne,       ...... 

Yes, 
No, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 
No, 

Yes. 

No. 

Yes. 

Shutesbury,     .        .       j. 
Sunderland,     

Yes, 

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 

Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Wendell,     <    .        .        .        . 
Whately,         

Yes! 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 

No. 
Yes. 

HAMPDEN  COUNTY. 


Afawam,         ...... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Blandford,       ...... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Brimfield,        

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Chester,  

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Granville,        .                 .... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

No, 

No, 

No. 

Holland,  
Holyoke,         „        

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 

Yes. 

No. 

Lonopneadow,          
Ludlow,  
Monson,  ....... 
Montgomery,  
Palmer,   
Russell,  

Yes, 

Yes, 
No, 
Yes, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 
No, 
No, 
No, 

Yes. 
Yes. 

No. 
Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Springfield,     ...... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Tolland  
Wales  
Westfield,        ...... 

Yes, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
Yes, 

Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

No, 

No, 

Yes. 

Wilbraham,     

HAMPSHIRE  ( 

BOUNTY. 

Amherst,          

Yes, 

- 

Yes 

Chesterfield,    

Yes, 
No, 

No, 
Yes, 

Yes 

No. 

204: 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


TABLE  E.  —  Continued. 
HAMPSHIRE   COUNTY— Concluded. 


TOWNS. 

Favor 
State  Aid. 

Favor 
County  Aid. 

Favor 
State  High  way- 
Commission. 

Easthampton,          ..... 

Enfield,   -.  •      . 
Goshen,  ....     ,  v; 
Granby,  .-      .     .    . 

No, 

Yes, 

No, 

No; 

No, 

No. 
Yes. 

No. 

Hadley,  .        .        .        .     ...      . 
Hatfield,  .        .        .        .     ;  ,-,'      . 
Huntington,     .         .        .        *,  ' 

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 

No, 
No, 
No, 

Yes. 
Yes. 

No. 

Middlefield,     .        .       i.     tx*%     . 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes, 

Pelham,  .        .        .        .        .Y     .,   .  -, 
Plainfield,        .        .        .      •••>»'<     .' 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 
No, 

Yes. 

Prescott,  .        .        .        ...  '>     . 
Southampton,          .        .        //     .        . 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

South  Hadley,        

Ware  '    ;  ;  v 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Westhampton,         ..... 

Williamsburg,         .         .     V  i  /  '«.• 

Yes, 
No, 

No, 
No, 

Yes. 

No. 

Worth  ington,  .        .        .     .-.  .    . 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

MIDDLESEX  COUNTY. 


Acton,      

Yes, 
No, 

No, 
No, 

Yes. 

Ashby,     .        .        .        .        .        .    •    . 
Ashland,  •    . 
Ayer,       .        .        .        .        .        .•-  •    -. 

No, 
No, 
No, 

Yes, 
No, 
No, 

No. 

No. 
No. 

Bedford,  ...       p.        £.     ,|   •    . 
Belmont,  *-  "V| 
Billerica          .        .        .        . 

* 
No 

Yes 

* 
Yes. 

Boxborough,  
Burlington,      ...... 

Yes, 

No. 

Cambridge,     .        .    .     . 
Carlisle,  
Chelmsford,    
Concord,  
Dracut,    

Yes, 

Yes, 
No, 
Yes, 

No, 
Ho, 

Yes, 

Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Everett,   
Framingham,  
Groton,    
Holliston,        

No, 
Yes, 
Yes, 
No, 

No, 

No, 

No, 
No, 

No. 
Yes. 
Yes, 
No. 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes, 

Hudson,  

Yes, 
No, 

No, 
Yes, 

Yes. 

No. 

Lincoln,  
Littleton,         .        .        .        . 

Lowell,    .        .        .        .        . 

Yes, 

— 

Yes. 

*  Yes  and  No. 


IMPBOVEMENT   OF   HIGHWAYS. 


205 


TABLE  E.  —  Continued. 
MIDDLESEX  COUNTY  —  Concluded. 


TOWNS. 

FaTor 
State  Aid. 

Favor 
County  Aid. 

Favor 
State  Highway 
Commission. 

Maiden,  
M  arl  borough,  .         ..... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes, 
Yes, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 

Yes, 

No, 
No, 
Yes, 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes, 
No, 
No, 
No, 
Yes, 
Yes, 
No, 
No, 
No, 
No, 
Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 
No, 
No, 

Yes, 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 
Yes. 

No. 
No. 

Yes. 
No. 
No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Mavnard,         ...... 

Medford  

Melrose,  
Natk'k,    
Newton,          

Pepperell,        ...... 

Reading,  
Sherborn,        .        .        .        . 

Shirley,   .                 

Stoneham,       ...... 

Stow,       ....... 

Sudbury,  
Tewksbury,     
Town  send,      ...... 

Tyngsborough,        ..... 

Wakefield,       

Waltham  

Watertown,     
Wayland  

Westford,        .        .        .'      '*.        .' 

Weston,  .        ..     .   i    •  *   ^,"      «,       • 
Wilmington,    .        .   >    .     .„.      •  ..       . 
Winchester,    .    *  .        .     /a 
Woburn,  % 

NANTUCKET  ( 

BOUNTY. 

Yes, 

Yes. 

NORFOLK  COUNTY. 


Avon,       ....... 

Yes, 

Bellingham,    ...... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Brookline,       ...... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Canton,   
Cohasset,         ...... 

Dedham,          ...... 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Dover,     
Foxborough,  ...... 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes. 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Holbrook,        ...... 

206 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


TABLE  E.  —  Continued. 
NORFOLK  COUNTY  — Concluded. 


TOWNS. 

Favor 
State  Aid. 

Favor 
County  Aid. 

Favor 
State  Highway 
Commission. 

Hyde  Park,     .        ... 

Yes, 

No, 

Meafield,         .         .        .      % 

Yes, 

No, 

No. 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Millis  ./      . 
Milton,    .        .        .        .        , 

Yes, 

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 

•—  • 

No. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

Norfolk,.        ."       .        .   ••'  .        . 

Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Quincy,   

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

No, 

No- 

No. 

Yes, 

Yes. 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Wellesley,       .        .        . 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 

Weymouth,     .        . 

No, 
No, 

No, 
No, 

No. 
No. 

PLYMOUTH  COUNTY. 


Yes, 

Yes, 

No, 
No, 

No, 
No, 
No, 
Yes, 

Yes, 
Yes, 

Yes, 

No, 
No, 

Y~es, 
Yes, 
No, 
No, 
Yes, 
No, 
No, 

No, 

Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes.* 
Yes. 
No. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes 

Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

No. 
No. 
No. 

Yes. 

Yes, 
Yes, 

Yes, 
No, 

No, 
Yes, 
No, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes, 
Yes, 
Yes, 
No, 
Yes, 
No, 

Yes, 

Carver,    •?.»  ''»•'! 

East  Bridge  water,  .        .        .        f-    •  *••. 
Halifax  

Hanson,  

Hull,        

Marion,   .        .        .        . 
Marshfield,      .        .....        . 
Mattapoi^ett,  

Scituate,          ...... 

West  Bridgewater,         .... 
Whitman,        

Provisionally. 


IMPROVEMENT   OP   HIGHWAYS. 


207 


TABLE  E.  —  Continued. 
SUFFOLK  COUNTY. 


TOWNS. 


Faror 
State  Aid. 


Favor 
County  Aid. 


Favor 

State  Highway 
Commission. 


Boston,  . 
Chelsea,  . 
Revere,  . 
Winthrop, 


Yes, 
Yes, 


No, 
No, 


Yes. 
Yes. 


WORCESTER  COUNTY. 


Ashbumham,  .  .      -.        ,        »  Yes, 

Athol,      .  ,:.... 

Auburn,  .        ...        .        .        .  Yes, 

Barre,     .        .  >.    .  .        .        .  Yes, 

Berlin,     .        .  .^      -  -    .     -.        . 

Blackstone,     .  -    ,.:-""*        ._      ...  Yes, 

Bolton,    .        .  .        .        .        ,.  Yes, 

Boylston,         .        .        .  •  .        .  No, 

Brookfield, ..  Yes, 

Charlton,       '..  -      . ;    •    .        , 

Clinton, 

Dana,      .        .        *.       .        .        .        .  Yes, 

Douglas,.        .        .        .        .        .        .  No, 

Dudley,  .......  No, 

Fitchburg,       .        .        .        ...... 

Gardner,      .    .        .        .        .  .  Yes, 

Graf  ton,  .        .    "".'  "'  V .      . '"""  . '    :"  'T  '      Yes, 

Hardwick,       .        .        .      '.,      .        .  Yes, 
Harvard,         .        v  "  .  ~  *   . 

Holden,  .        .        .        .        .        .        .  Yes, 

Hopedale,        .        .       <•.,?•        .        .  Yes, 

Hubbardston, .        .        .        .        .        .  Yes, 

Lancaster,       .        .        .        .        .        .  No, 

Leicester,        .  .     . ;  .-  ,':       .        .        .  Yes, 

Leominster, Yes, 

Lunenburg,     .        .        .        .        .        .  No, 

Mendon, .        ^        .        .        .        .        .  Yes, 

Milford, 

Millbury,        ,       -.        .        .        .        .  Yes, 

New  Braintree, No, 

Northborough,        .....  No, 
Northbridge,  .....*. 

North  Brookfield, Yes, 

Oakham,      .   •  ;      .        .        .        .        .  Yes, 

Oxford, 

Paxton,   .        .        .        .        .        .        .  Yes, 

Petersham, 

Phillipston, Yes, 

Princeton, 

Royalston,       ......  No, 

Rutland, Yes, 


No, 
No, 


No, 
No, 
Yes, 
No, 


No, 
Yes, 
Yes, 

No, 
No, 


No, 
No, 
No, 
No, 
No, 
No, 
No, 
No, 

No, 
No, 
No, 

No, 
No, 

No, 


No, 
No, 


Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 


Yes. 
Yes. 


Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
No. 

Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 


No. 
No. 


»  Yes  with  County  Eng. 


f  No  and  Yes. 


208 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


TABLE  E.  —  Concluded. 
WORCESTER  COUNTY  —  Concluded. 


TOWNS. 

Favor 
State  Aid. 

Favor 
County  Aid. 

Favor 
State  Highway 
Commission. 

No, 

No 

No. 

Southborough,        .        .4       >r      .« 

No, 

No, 

No. 

No 

No 

* 

Spencer,          .        .        .      •  V        .  •      .  d 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes. 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Sturbridge,      .        .        .        ,        , 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes, 

SuttOn,        .                .               •           .    •;    -'.;(,. 

Templeton,      .        .      .'  .        .        . 
Upton,     , 

Yes, 
Yes, 
No, 

No, 
No, 
No, 

No. 
Yes. 
No. 

Warren,  .        .        .        .      -  .        .  •      .  - 

Yes, 

Yes. 

Webster,         .        .        .        .        .  -      .  • 

Yes, 

No, 

Westborough,         .        .        . 

Yes, 

Yes. 

West  Boylston,       .        . 
West  Brookfield,    .        .        . 

Yes 

- 

Yes 

Westminster,  .        .        .        .        .  ••      .' 

Yes, 

Yes, 

Yes. 

Winchendon,  .         .        .        :.      t  >•       .  • 

Yes, 

No, 

Yes. 
Yes. 

*  No  objections. 


SUMMARY. 


11 

STATE  AID 

COUNTY  AID  ON 

STATE  HIGHWAY 

a  * 

a, 

ON  MAIN  ROADS. 

MAIN  ROADS. 

COMMISSION. 

•2 

C    • 

ni 

Yes. 

No. 

No  An- 

Yes. 

No. 

No  An- 

Yes. 

No. 

No  An- 

oHO 
fc 

swer. 

swer. 

swer. 

Barnstable,       I 

15 

10 

2 

3 

4 

7 

4 

11 

2 

2 

Berkshire, 

32 

18 

6 

8 

3 

20 

9 

19 

6 

7 

Bristol,     . 

20 

9 

5 

6 

4 

7 

9 

7 

4 

9 

Dukes, 

6 

2 

1 

3 

0 

3 

3 

2 

1 

3 

Essex, 

35 

.11 

9 

15 

4 

13 

18 

13 

8 

14 

Franklin,  . 

26 

21 

3 

2 

1 

19 

6 

18 

4 

4 

Hampshire, 

23 

12 

4 

7 

2 

14 

7 

11 

5 

7 

Hampden, 

22 

17 

3 

.   2 

1 

17 

4 

17 

3 

2 

Middlesex, 

54 

25 

15 

14 

12 

22 

20 

26 

12 

16 

Nan  tucket,       . 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

0 

Norfolk,  . 

27 

18 

3 

6 

1 

16 

10 

15 

5 

7 

Plymouth,         . 

27 

14 

5 

8 

7 

12 

8 

19 

4 

4 

Suffolk,    . 

4 

2 

0 

2 

0 

2 

2 

2 

0 

2 

Worcester, 

59 

32 

13 

14 

7 

33 

18 

32 

11 

16 

Total, 

351 

192 

69 

90 

46 

185 

120 

193 

65 

93 

Percentage  of  Total 

Number  of  Cities 

and  Towns,  . 

~ 

54| 

19| 

25£ 

13J 

52f 

34 

55 

18i 

26J 

IMPROVEMENT    OF    HIGHWAYS. 


209 


TABLE  G.*  —  Estimated  Values  in  Tons  (2,000  Pounds)  used  in 
determining  the  Weights  j)assing  over  the  Four  Roads  leading  into 
Boston  on  ivhich  Traffic  Observations  were  made,  August,  1892. 


KIND  OF  WAGON. 

No.  of  Horses. 

Weight  of  Horses. 

Weight  of  Empty  1 
Wagon.  If 

Weight  of  Loaded  1 
Wagon. 

•s 

J3      c 

U     o 

12 

til 

1  s£ 

Totnl  Weight  of 
Horses,  Wagon 
and  Load. 

Beer,     .... 

1 

0.70 

1.18 

2.23 

1.05 

1.05 

2.93 

H 

2 

1.40 

1.65 

4.61 

2.96 

1.48 

6.01 

" 

3 

2.10 

2.13 

6.43 

4.30 

1.43 

8.53 

Caravan, 

1 

0.70 

1.10 

3.23 

2.13 

2.13 

3.93 

M 

2 

1.40 

1.88 

6.54 

4.66 

2.33 

7.94 

M 

M 

2.10 

1.84 

10.96 

9.12 

3.04 

13.06 

M 

4 

2.80 

2.43 

11.05 

8.62 

2.16 

13.85 

Carriage, 

1 

0.45 

0.11 

0.36 

0.25 

0.25 

0.81 

it 

2 

0.90 

0.30 

0.60 

0.30 

0.15 

1.50 

Coal,     .'.'.. 

1 

0.70 

0.78 

2.44 

1.66 

1.66 

3.14 

M 

2 

1.40 

1.59 

4.87 

3.28 

1.64 

6.27 

u 

3 

2.10 

2.29 

8.29 

6.00 

2.00 

10.39 

Express, 

1 

0.55 

O.G2 

1.61 

1.00 

1.00 

2.16 

tt 

2 

1.10 

1.38 

3.25 

1.88 

0.94 

4.35 

Lumber, 

1 

0.70 

1.00 

3.00 

2.00 

2.00 

3.70 

M 

2 

1.40 

1.30 

4.37 

3.07 

.54 

5.77 

(( 

3 

2.10 

1.58 

7.09 

5.50 

.83 

9.19 

tl 

4 

2.80 

1.90 

8.90 

7.00 

.75 

11.70 

Milk,     . 

I 

0.55 

0.60 

1.68 

1.08 

.08 

2.23 

"         .... 

2 

1.10 

1.03 

4.18 

3.15 

.58 

5.28 

Stone,    .... 

1 

0.70 

0.90 

2.90 

2.00 

2.00 

3.60 

" 

2 

1.40 

1.35 

5.21 

3.86 

1.93 

6.61 

"... 

3 

2.10 

1.50 

11.50 

10.00 

3.33 

13.60 

M 

4 

2.80 

2.19 

12.18 

10.00 

2.50 

14.98 

Hack,    '. 

1 

0.45 

0.50 

0.80 

0.30 

0.30 

1.25 

K 

2 

0.90 

0.75 

1.25 

0.50 

0.25 

2.15 

Ice,       .'.'!! 

2 

1.40 

1.98 

5.25 

3.28 

1.64 

6.65 

Tip-cart, 

1 

0.70 

0.87 

3.40 

2.53 

2.53 

4.10 

2 

1.40 

1.25 

4.41 

3.16 

1.58 

5.81 

*  Table  F  is  omitted. 


210 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   HIGHWAYS. 


S  I 

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213 


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215 


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217 


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218 


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IBJOJ,  jo 


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Continued 
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